1
00:00:01,350 --> 00:00:22,710
[Music]

2
00:00:22,720 --> 00:00:31,589
so

3
00:00:36,709 --> 00:00:33,510
welcome back to the ufo rabbit hole

4
00:00:39,030 --> 00:00:36,719
podcast i'm your host kelly chase

5
00:00:41,590 --> 00:00:39,040
today we begin a new leg of our journey

6
00:00:43,750 --> 00:00:41,600
down the rabbit hole so i want to take a

7
00:00:45,670 --> 00:00:43,760
quick minute to recap where we've been

8
00:00:47,029 --> 00:00:45,680
and to begin to map out the way forward

9
00:00:48,709 --> 00:00:47,039
from here

10
00:00:51,350 --> 00:00:48,719
so far we've established that the

11
00:00:53,350 --> 00:00:51,360
pentagon has admitted that ufos are real

12
00:00:55,270 --> 00:00:53,360
that they're operating with impunity in

13
00:00:56,389 --> 00:00:55,280
our airspace and that we don't know what

14
00:00:57,750 --> 00:00:56,399
they are

15
00:00:59,910 --> 00:00:57,760
we've talked through some of the most

16
00:01:01,510 --> 00:00:59,920
common explanations for what the ufo

17
00:01:03,670 --> 00:01:01,520
phenomenon might be

18
00:01:05,950 --> 00:01:03,680
considering everything from secret human

19
00:01:09,030 --> 00:01:05,960
technology to future humans and from

20
00:01:11,030 --> 00:01:09,040
extraterrestrials to ultraterrestrials

21
00:01:13,030 --> 00:01:11,040
we've also been introduced to some

22
00:01:14,710 --> 00:01:13,040
although certainly not all of the main

23
00:01:15,749 --> 00:01:14,720
players in the current disclosure

24
00:01:18,550 --> 00:01:15,759
movement

25
00:01:19,830 --> 00:01:18,560
including former director of atip luis

26
00:01:21,830 --> 00:01:19,840
elizondo

27
00:01:24,630 --> 00:01:21,840
former deputy assistant secretary of

28
00:01:27,429 --> 00:01:24,640
defense for intelligence chris mellon

29
00:01:29,910 --> 00:01:27,439
investigative journalist ross colt hart

30
00:01:32,310 --> 00:01:29,920
and former blink 182 frontman and

31
00:01:35,190 --> 00:01:32,320
founder of the now defunct to the stars

32
00:01:37,350 --> 00:01:35,200
academy of arts and sciences tom delong

33
00:01:39,190 --> 00:01:37,360
and many more

34
00:01:41,590 --> 00:01:39,200
and although we've covered a lot of

35
00:01:43,990 --> 00:01:41,600
ground when it comes to understanding

36
00:01:46,630 --> 00:01:44,000
the full scope of the ufo phenomenon and

37
00:01:49,270 --> 00:01:46,640
its implications for humankind we've

38
00:01:50,389 --> 00:01:49,280
barely scratched the surface

39
00:01:52,310 --> 00:01:50,399
and yet

40
00:01:55,270 --> 00:01:52,320
already it's clear that the branches of

41
00:01:57,270 --> 00:01:55,280
ufology stretch out in every direction

42
00:02:00,069 --> 00:01:57,280
its tendrils are deeply tangled and

43
00:02:02,630 --> 00:02:00,079
entwined with questions of human history

44
00:02:05,270 --> 00:02:02,640
consciousness spirituality quantum

45
00:02:07,350 --> 00:02:05,280
mechanics and even the paranormal

46
00:02:09,270 --> 00:02:07,360
basically anywhere that we would look to

47
00:02:11,510 --> 00:02:09,280
ask the deeper questions about the

48
00:02:14,710 --> 00:02:11,520
nature of our reality and our purpose

49
00:02:16,869 --> 00:02:14,720
within it we find ufology lurking

50
00:02:18,150 --> 00:02:16,879
taunting us with seemingly unanswerable

51
00:02:21,190 --> 00:02:18,160
questions

52
00:02:23,589 --> 00:02:21,200
and so over these next several episodes

53
00:02:25,510 --> 00:02:23,599
we'll begin to get a high-level overview

54
00:02:26,710 --> 00:02:25,520
of the many different facets of this

55
00:02:28,229 --> 00:02:26,720
phenomenon

56
00:02:30,790 --> 00:02:28,239
we'll talk about bleeding-edge

57
00:02:33,030 --> 00:02:30,800
scientific discoveries we'll dive deeper

58
00:02:35,509 --> 00:02:33,040
into the history of ufos and what the

59
00:02:37,430 --> 00:02:35,519
united states government might be hiding

60
00:02:40,309 --> 00:02:37,440
we'll explore the deep ties of the

61
00:02:42,070 --> 00:02:40,319
phenomenon to the paranormal and discuss

62
00:02:44,390 --> 00:02:42,080
multiple models of the mind and

63
00:02:46,470 --> 00:02:44,400
consciousness and even look at the

64
00:02:48,830 --> 00:02:46,480
mysteries surrounding the origin of the

65
00:02:51,910 --> 00:02:48,840
human species and what makes us so

66
00:02:53,990 --> 00:02:51,920
unique today though i want to talk

67
00:02:55,990 --> 00:02:54,000
specifically about some of the mysteries

68
00:02:57,509 --> 00:02:56,000
that exist around the dawn of human

69
00:02:59,670 --> 00:02:57,519
civilization

70
00:03:02,390 --> 00:02:59,680
where it happened when it happened and

71
00:03:04,710 --> 00:03:02,400
why it happened and what role the ufo

72
00:03:06,630 --> 00:03:04,720
phenomenon may have played in shaping

73
00:03:08,710 --> 00:03:06,640
who we are today

74
00:03:11,030 --> 00:03:08,720
as we've discussed previously it's

75
00:03:13,750 --> 00:03:11,040
basically impossible to point to any

76
00:03:15,830 --> 00:03:13,760
specific incident or time period and say

77
00:03:18,949 --> 00:03:15,840
that that is the definitive beginning of

78
00:03:20,949 --> 00:03:18,959
the ufo phenomenon the reality is that

79
00:03:23,190 --> 00:03:20,959
although it has manifested itself in

80
00:03:25,589 --> 00:03:23,200
different ways throughout history there

81
00:03:27,670 --> 00:03:25,599
is a clear pattern of strange objects

82
00:03:29,990 --> 00:03:27,680
and beings coming from the sky being

83
00:03:31,030 --> 00:03:30,000
reported by people and cultures around

84
00:03:33,190 --> 00:03:31,040
the world

85
00:03:34,630 --> 00:03:33,200
dating back to our very earliest written

86
00:03:36,710 --> 00:03:34,640
records

87
00:03:38,710 --> 00:03:36,720
there are lots of explanations for what

88
00:03:41,110 --> 00:03:38,720
these reports might represent from

89
00:03:42,710 --> 00:03:41,120
misunderstood weather phenomena to myths

90
00:03:44,309 --> 00:03:42,720
and allegories that were never meant to

91
00:03:46,789 --> 00:03:44,319
be taken as fact

92
00:03:48,869 --> 00:03:46,799
and because it's very difficult for us

93
00:03:51,509 --> 00:03:48,879
to know exactly what happened hundreds

94
00:03:53,670 --> 00:03:51,519
if not thousands of years ago it can be

95
00:03:55,830 --> 00:03:53,680
very tempting to just write all of those

96
00:03:59,270 --> 00:03:55,840
stories off as figments from a more

97
00:04:01,509 --> 00:03:59,280
primitive less scientific time period

98
00:04:03,270 --> 00:04:01,519
however with the pentagon's admission

99
00:04:05,350 --> 00:04:03,280
that ufos are real

100
00:04:07,429 --> 00:04:05,360
i think there's a really strong argument

101
00:04:08,710 --> 00:04:07,439
to be made that we no longer have that

102
00:04:10,869 --> 00:04:08,720
luxury

103
00:04:12,550 --> 00:04:10,879
members of our military and witnesses

104
00:04:14,710 --> 00:04:12,560
all around the world have reported

105
00:04:17,110 --> 00:04:14,720
seeing strange things in the sky that

106
00:04:18,229 --> 00:04:17,120
don't abide by the laws of physics as we

107
00:04:19,830 --> 00:04:18,239
know them

108
00:04:21,909 --> 00:04:19,840
why would we assume that this is the

109
00:04:23,030 --> 00:04:21,919
only time in human history that this has

110
00:04:25,670 --> 00:04:23,040
happened

111
00:04:28,310 --> 00:04:25,680
in fact when we examine the hypotheses

112
00:04:30,310 --> 00:04:28,320
offered to explain the ufo phenomenon

113
00:04:32,710 --> 00:04:30,320
most of them function in such a way as

114
00:04:34,230 --> 00:04:32,720
to strongly imply that this isn't a new

115
00:04:36,550 --> 00:04:34,240
phenomenon

116
00:04:39,110 --> 00:04:36,560
for example if what we're dealing with

117
00:04:40,950 --> 00:04:39,120
is future humans then there's no reason

118
00:04:42,550 --> 00:04:40,960
to believe that they'd only come back to

119
00:04:44,230 --> 00:04:42,560
this time period

120
00:04:46,150 --> 00:04:44,240
if they're going back to observe or

121
00:04:47,030 --> 00:04:46,160
interact with earlier versions of humans

122
00:04:48,390 --> 00:04:47,040
at all

123
00:04:50,710 --> 00:04:48,400
we can assume that this has been

124
00:04:52,030 --> 00:04:50,720
happening throughout human history

125
00:04:54,550 --> 00:04:52,040
if what we're dealing with is

126
00:04:56,550 --> 00:04:54,560
ultra-terrestrial then whatever this is

127
00:04:59,110 --> 00:04:56,560
has been here for a long time

128
00:05:00,310 --> 00:04:59,120
potentially much longer than humans

129
00:05:02,310 --> 00:05:00,320
and if what we're dealing with is

130
00:05:04,790 --> 00:05:02,320
interdimensional well then there's

131
00:05:07,029 --> 00:05:04,800
almost no limit to who or what is coming

132
00:05:08,950 --> 00:05:07,039
through the veil and limiting humanity's

133
00:05:11,110 --> 00:05:08,960
exposure to these beings to just a few

134
00:05:13,189 --> 00:05:11,120
decades is nonsensical if

135
00:05:15,350 --> 00:05:13,199
interdimensional travel is possible at

136
00:05:18,550 --> 00:05:15,360
all it's almost certainly happening on a

137
00:05:21,189 --> 00:05:18,560
scale that we can scarcely comprehend

138
00:05:23,270 --> 00:05:21,199
so of the most common hypotheses that

139
00:05:24,790 --> 00:05:23,280
really only leaves the extraterrestrial

140
00:05:26,469 --> 00:05:24,800
hypothesis

141
00:05:28,950 --> 00:05:26,479
could beings from another planet have

142
00:05:31,350 --> 00:05:28,960
first arrived here about 80ish years ago

143
00:05:32,629 --> 00:05:31,360
and have been messing with us ever since

144
00:05:33,830 --> 00:05:32,639
potentially

145
00:05:35,990 --> 00:05:33,840
if we're limiting the scope of the

146
00:05:37,670 --> 00:05:36,000
phenomenon to the last century then it's

147
00:05:39,110 --> 00:05:37,680
certainly the hypothesis that makes the

148
00:05:41,430 --> 00:05:39,120
most sense

149
00:05:43,590 --> 00:05:41,440
however if extraterrestrial visitation

150
00:05:45,830 --> 00:05:43,600
is happening now it certainly doesn't

151
00:05:47,029 --> 00:05:45,840
preclude extraterrestrial visitation in

152
00:05:48,950 --> 00:05:47,039
the past

153
00:05:51,270 --> 00:05:48,960
if earth and humans are interesting to

154
00:05:53,909 --> 00:05:51,280
alien intelligences now it's likely that

155
00:05:55,749 --> 00:05:53,919
they would have been in the past as well

156
00:05:57,990 --> 00:05:55,759
though admittedly the advent of the

157
00:06:00,309 --> 00:05:58,000
nuclear bomb could conceivably have been

158
00:06:01,909 --> 00:06:00,319
the thing that put us on their radar

159
00:06:04,390 --> 00:06:01,919
it's hard to know

160
00:06:07,029 --> 00:06:04,400
the point being given what we know of

161
00:06:09,110 --> 00:06:07,039
the phenomenon so far it makes a lot of

162
00:06:10,230 --> 00:06:09,120
sense to look to the past for potential

163
00:06:12,390 --> 00:06:10,240
clues

164
00:06:15,590 --> 00:06:12,400
and you know what that means friends

165
00:06:17,430 --> 00:06:15,600
it's time for us to do in ancient aliens

166
00:06:19,430 --> 00:06:17,440
for those who aren't familiar ancient

167
00:06:21,189 --> 00:06:19,440
aliens is a show on the history channel

168
00:06:23,909 --> 00:06:21,199
that is based on the premise that in our

169
00:06:26,070 --> 00:06:23,919
distant past extraterrestrials came to

170
00:06:27,990 --> 00:06:26,080
earth and interacted with and sometimes

171
00:06:30,070 --> 00:06:28,000
helped humans

172
00:06:32,070 --> 00:06:30,080
this theory is called ancient astronaut

173
00:06:34,070 --> 00:06:32,080
theory and its proponents see evidence

174
00:06:35,990 --> 00:06:34,080
to support their claims in everything

175
00:06:38,710 --> 00:06:36,000
from petroglyphs depicting strange

176
00:06:40,469 --> 00:06:38,720
beings to ancient megalithic structures

177
00:06:42,230 --> 00:06:40,479
that they contend humans could not have

178
00:06:43,909 --> 00:06:42,240
built on their own

179
00:06:46,230 --> 00:06:43,919
they see the stories in ancient

180
00:06:48,950 --> 00:06:46,240
scriptures as evidence of our ancestors

181
00:06:51,029 --> 00:06:48,960
trying to describe events and technology

182
00:06:52,469 --> 00:06:51,039
that they had no words or framework to

183
00:06:54,550 --> 00:06:52,479
understand

184
00:06:56,950 --> 00:06:54,560
basically anything interesting

185
00:06:58,629 --> 00:06:56,960
mysterious or anomalous in our past has

186
00:07:00,150 --> 00:06:58,639
one explanation

187
00:07:02,230 --> 00:07:00,160
aliens did it

188
00:07:03,350 --> 00:07:02,240
or at least that's the main takeaway of

189
00:07:05,909 --> 00:07:03,360
the show

190
00:07:08,469 --> 00:07:05,919
ancient aliens by its very infotainment

191
00:07:10,550 --> 00:07:08,479
nature is not big on nuance and is

192
00:07:12,790 --> 00:07:10,560
notorious for stringing together wild

193
00:07:15,110 --> 00:07:12,800
theories and making bold proclamations

194
00:07:17,830 --> 00:07:15,120
based on evidence that is dubious at

195
00:07:19,990 --> 00:07:17,840
best it makes for a fun watch if you're

196
00:07:21,990 --> 00:07:20,000
not too concerned with the truthiness of

197
00:07:23,589 --> 00:07:22,000
the facts being presented

198
00:07:25,990 --> 00:07:23,599
but for those who are looking for a

199
00:07:27,670 --> 00:07:26,000
scientific rational approach to some of

200
00:07:29,430 --> 00:07:27,680
these bigger questions

201
00:07:31,430 --> 00:07:29,440
this isn't it

202
00:07:34,150 --> 00:07:31,440
now i want to come right out and say

203
00:07:36,309 --> 00:07:34,160
that i am an ancient aliens apologist

204
00:07:38,230 --> 00:07:36,319
there are many in the ufo community who

205
00:07:40,070 --> 00:07:38,240
don't share my views and i understand

206
00:07:42,469 --> 00:07:40,080
why

207
00:07:45,270 --> 00:07:42,479
for many people ancient aliens is their

208
00:07:47,990 --> 00:07:45,280
main and perhaps their only exposure to

209
00:07:49,430 --> 00:07:48,000
ideas surrounding the ufo phenomenon

210
00:07:51,830 --> 00:07:49,440
i was certainly one of those people

211
00:07:53,270 --> 00:07:51,840
before i started down this rabbit hole

212
00:07:55,189 --> 00:07:53,280
and if that's the main place you're

213
00:07:57,510 --> 00:07:55,199
getting your information it can be hard

214
00:08:00,869 --> 00:07:57,520
to take any of it seriously it just

215
00:08:03,749 --> 00:08:00,879
comes across as totally wackadoo

216
00:08:05,430 --> 00:08:03,759
but i still go to bat for ancient aliens

217
00:08:07,270 --> 00:08:05,440
in my early days of investigating this

218
00:08:09,430 --> 00:08:07,280
phenomenon the deal that i made with

219
00:08:11,909 --> 00:08:09,440
myself was that i would look at every

220
00:08:14,150 --> 00:08:11,919
piece of evidence and every theory i

221
00:08:16,790 --> 00:08:14,160
would turn over every rock and i would

222
00:08:19,270 --> 00:08:16,800
allow myself to really and truly

223
00:08:21,189 --> 00:08:19,280
consider ideas that i deemed to be too

224
00:08:23,350 --> 00:08:21,199
absurd in the past

225
00:08:26,070 --> 00:08:23,360
i didn't need to accept it i didn't need

226
00:08:28,390 --> 00:08:26,080
to believe it i just needed to explore

227
00:08:31,110 --> 00:08:28,400
it with an open mind doing my best to

228
00:08:34,070 --> 00:08:31,120
set aside my previous biases and weigh

229
00:08:36,230 --> 00:08:34,080
each piece of evidence on its merits

230
00:08:37,990 --> 00:08:36,240
and being new to the world of ufos and

231
00:08:39,829 --> 00:08:38,000
not knowing where to start ancient

232
00:08:40,790 --> 00:08:39,839
aliens was a pretty natural place to

233
00:08:42,790 --> 00:08:40,800
begin

234
00:08:44,710 --> 00:08:42,800
and so i started watching

235
00:08:47,110 --> 00:08:44,720
and in the midst of the logical leaps

236
00:08:49,430 --> 00:08:47,120
and the hilarious non-sequiturs there

237
00:08:51,829 --> 00:08:49,440
were also some truly astounding and

238
00:08:54,550 --> 00:08:51,839
challenging ideas

239
00:08:58,070 --> 00:08:54,560
there were revelations that frankly

240
00:09:00,630 --> 00:08:58,080
floored me prompting me to dig deeper

241
00:09:02,949 --> 00:09:00,640
the ideas that really struck me the ones

242
00:09:05,590 --> 00:09:02,959
that kept me awake puzzling over if this

243
00:09:08,230 --> 00:09:05,600
could possibly be true and contemplating

244
00:09:10,870 --> 00:09:08,240
the stunning implications if it were

245
00:09:13,509 --> 00:09:10,880
weren't the flashy ideas it was a wild

246
00:09:15,509 --> 00:09:13,519
speculation about nuclear wars or alien

247
00:09:18,150 --> 00:09:15,519
overlords or high technology in the

248
00:09:21,430 --> 00:09:18,160
distant past it was the smaller and more

249
00:09:23,509 --> 00:09:21,440
grounded details the physical proof the

250
00:09:24,550 --> 00:09:23,519
anomalies that could be ignored but not

251
00:09:26,790 --> 00:09:24,560
denied

252
00:09:29,110 --> 00:09:26,800
the tantalizing hints that the story of

253
00:09:30,070 --> 00:09:29,120
humanity might not be what we think it

254
00:09:31,670 --> 00:09:30,080
is

255
00:09:33,030 --> 00:09:31,680
and i'm grateful to ancient aliens for

256
00:09:35,590 --> 00:09:33,040
that

257
00:09:37,110 --> 00:09:35,600
however it's also important to recognize

258
00:09:39,030 --> 00:09:37,120
that although the ancient astronaut

259
00:09:41,590 --> 00:09:39,040
theory is the idea that most people are

260
00:09:43,430 --> 00:09:41,600
familiar with there are actually a few

261
00:09:45,829 --> 00:09:43,440
other potential explanations for the

262
00:09:47,590 --> 00:09:45,839
mysterious sites and anomalous artifacts

263
00:09:49,750 --> 00:09:47,600
from our distant past

264
00:09:52,070 --> 00:09:49,760
and most of them boil down to the idea

265
00:09:54,070 --> 00:09:52,080
that human civilization may be much

266
00:09:56,150 --> 00:09:54,080
older than we thought

267
00:09:57,670 --> 00:09:56,160
we'll get back to that idea in part two

268
00:09:59,829 --> 00:09:57,680
and talk through some of the evidence

269
00:10:02,470 --> 00:09:59,839
for that potentially being the case

270
00:10:04,630 --> 00:10:02,480
but for now let's stick a pin in it

271
00:10:06,790 --> 00:10:04,640
all that's important at this stage is to

272
00:10:08,389 --> 00:10:06,800
recognize that there are a wide range of

273
00:10:10,310 --> 00:10:08,399
possibilities when we look at the

274
00:10:13,030 --> 00:10:10,320
mysteries of our past

275
00:10:15,190 --> 00:10:13,040
and many of them are just as startling

276
00:10:16,550 --> 00:10:15,200
and just as profound as ancient alien

277
00:10:18,550 --> 00:10:16,560
visitors

278
00:10:21,030 --> 00:10:18,560
but before we start looking at any

279
00:10:23,030 --> 00:10:21,040
particular evidence or explanation

280
00:10:25,190 --> 00:10:23,040
we first need to ask the biggest and

281
00:10:27,750 --> 00:10:25,200
most important question

282
00:10:30,230 --> 00:10:27,760
what do we know for sure about ancient

283
00:10:31,350 --> 00:10:30,240
human civilization

284
00:10:33,110 --> 00:10:31,360
after all

285
00:10:35,030 --> 00:10:33,120
whether we're talking about alien

286
00:10:37,030 --> 00:10:35,040
intelligences interacting with and

287
00:10:39,190 --> 00:10:37,040
influencing human development

288
00:10:40,710 --> 00:10:39,200
or human civilization being older than

289
00:10:43,030 --> 00:10:40,720
we think it is

290
00:10:45,030 --> 00:10:43,040
there should be evidence right

291
00:10:46,630 --> 00:10:45,040
and with the technological advances of

292
00:10:48,710 --> 00:10:46,640
the past several decades

293
00:10:50,949 --> 00:10:48,720
archaeologists and researchers are

294
00:10:52,870 --> 00:10:50,959
equipped with more powerful and precise

295
00:10:55,269 --> 00:10:52,880
tools than ever before

296
00:10:56,630 --> 00:10:55,279
so surely there must be some things that

297
00:10:58,630 --> 00:10:56,640
we know for sure

298
00:11:00,470 --> 00:10:58,640
which means that hypothetically there

299
00:11:03,110 --> 00:11:00,480
are things we should be able to rule out

300
00:11:05,509 --> 00:11:03,120
right the answer to that question was

301
00:11:07,910 --> 00:11:05,519
meant to be just the intro of this

302
00:11:09,910 --> 00:11:07,920
episode but has ballooned into an

303
00:11:11,990 --> 00:11:09,920
episode of its own and i think it's

304
00:11:13,910 --> 00:11:12,000
important that we spend some time here

305
00:11:16,230 --> 00:11:13,920
because before we can have an

306
00:11:17,990 --> 00:11:16,240
intelligent and informed conversation

307
00:11:20,150 --> 00:11:18,000
about what may or may not have happened

308
00:11:22,230 --> 00:11:20,160
in humanity's ancient past

309
00:11:24,949 --> 00:11:22,240
we first need to have the conversation

310
00:11:26,069 --> 00:11:24,959
about what we already know and how we

311
00:11:28,870 --> 00:11:26,079
know it

312
00:11:30,790 --> 00:11:28,880
and also as you've probably guessed

313
00:11:32,550 --> 00:11:30,800
i'm going to advocate for the idea that

314
00:11:35,190 --> 00:11:32,560
there is significant evidence that the

315
00:11:37,430 --> 00:11:35,200
established narrative about how when and

316
00:11:38,630 --> 00:11:37,440
why human civilization developed is

317
00:11:40,870 --> 00:11:38,640
incorrect

318
00:11:44,069 --> 00:11:40,880
which is not something that i do lightly

319
00:11:46,310 --> 00:11:44,079
i am not an archaeologist or a scientist

320
00:11:48,550 --> 00:11:46,320
i'm a content creator who reads too many

321
00:11:51,110 --> 00:11:48,560
books and no matter how many books i

322
00:11:53,509 --> 00:11:51,120
read any decent archaeologist has

323
00:11:55,509 --> 00:11:53,519
forgotten more about this subject than i

324
00:11:57,590 --> 00:11:55,519
am likely to ever know

325
00:11:59,910 --> 00:11:57,600
so i think it's important to first lay

326
00:12:02,389 --> 00:11:59,920
out the case for why i believe this line

327
00:12:04,470 --> 00:12:02,399
of questioning is warranted and why i

328
00:12:07,269 --> 00:12:04,480
feel comfortable making the admittedly

329
00:12:09,190 --> 00:12:07,279
audacious claim that the experts may be

330
00:12:11,430 --> 00:12:09,200
wrong on this one

331
00:12:13,430 --> 00:12:11,440
but before we get into all that

332
00:12:15,509 --> 00:12:13,440
i want to take a minute to talk about a

333
00:12:18,150 --> 00:12:15,519
very important concept that we'll

334
00:12:19,750 --> 00:12:18,160
inevitably be revisiting again and again

335
00:12:21,110 --> 00:12:19,760
as we continue our journey down the

336
00:12:24,470 --> 00:12:21,120
rabbit hole

337
00:12:26,389 --> 00:12:24,480
and that concept is epistemology

338
00:12:28,150 --> 00:12:26,399
so for those of you that didn't waste

339
00:12:29,790 --> 00:12:28,160
your parents money on three quarters of

340
00:12:32,389 --> 00:12:29,800
a philosophy degree

341
00:12:35,590 --> 00:12:32,399
epistemology is the study or theory of

342
00:12:36,790 --> 00:12:35,600
the origin nature methods and limits of

343
00:12:38,790 --> 00:12:36,800
knowledge

344
00:12:40,870 --> 00:12:38,800
as we continue to explore all these

345
00:12:43,110 --> 00:12:40,880
strange ideas and theories we'll

346
00:12:45,590 --> 00:12:43,120
inevitably find ourselves coming back to

347
00:12:48,389 --> 00:12:45,600
the same basic questions

348
00:12:50,550 --> 00:12:48,399
what do we know to be true and how do we

349
00:12:53,190 --> 00:12:50,560
know for sure that what we accept is

350
00:12:54,870 --> 00:12:53,200
true is actually true

351
00:12:56,629 --> 00:12:54,880
basically it's exactly what we're

352
00:12:58,389 --> 00:12:56,639
talking about with regards to early

353
00:13:00,790 --> 00:12:58,399
human civilization

354
00:13:02,230 --> 00:13:00,800
what do we know and how do we know that

355
00:13:04,069 --> 00:13:02,240
we know it

356
00:13:06,949 --> 00:13:04,079
these may sound like really obvious

357
00:13:09,190 --> 00:13:06,959
questions with equally obvious answers

358
00:13:11,110 --> 00:13:09,200
but the question of what we can know and

359
00:13:13,670 --> 00:13:11,120
how we can know that we know it has

360
00:13:16,710 --> 00:13:13,680
stumped philosophers perhaps more than

361
00:13:18,389 --> 00:13:16,720
any other for thousands of years

362
00:13:20,949 --> 00:13:18,399
consider for a moment the difference

363
00:13:24,230 --> 00:13:20,959
between believing that something is true

364
00:13:26,470 --> 00:13:24,240
and knowing that something is true

365
00:13:28,949 --> 00:13:26,480
we know instinctively that those two

366
00:13:31,110 --> 00:13:28,959
things are very different but it can be

367
00:13:32,389 --> 00:13:31,120
hard to put your finger on how they are

368
00:13:34,150 --> 00:13:32,399
different

369
00:13:36,230 --> 00:13:34,160
a person can believe that something is

370
00:13:38,230 --> 00:13:36,240
true that is actually false

371
00:13:40,230 --> 00:13:38,240
this happens all the time often when

372
00:13:42,150 --> 00:13:40,240
someone is working with incomplete or

373
00:13:44,310 --> 00:13:42,160
incorrect information

374
00:13:46,230 --> 00:13:44,320
people can jump to conclusions or put

375
00:13:47,430 --> 00:13:46,240
blind trust in a source that isn't

376
00:13:48,870 --> 00:13:47,440
accurate

377
00:13:51,110 --> 00:13:48,880
sometimes it's just a matter of a

378
00:13:53,430 --> 00:13:51,120
mistake or a miscommunication

379
00:13:55,670 --> 00:13:53,440
but generally we agree that just because

380
00:13:58,150 --> 00:13:55,680
someone believes something doesn't

381
00:14:00,230 --> 00:13:58,160
necessarily mean that it's true and we

382
00:14:02,389 --> 00:14:00,240
also recognize that we can become

383
00:14:04,230 --> 00:14:02,399
attached to our beliefs in a way that

384
00:14:06,470 --> 00:14:04,240
makes us more likely to dismiss or

385
00:14:08,310 --> 00:14:06,480
overlook data that doesn't fit within

386
00:14:09,110 --> 00:14:08,320
that framework

387
00:14:10,870 --> 00:14:09,120
but

388
00:14:12,949 --> 00:14:10,880
knowing something is fundamentally

389
00:14:14,389 --> 00:14:12,959
different from believing it

390
00:14:16,629 --> 00:14:14,399
you can know your best friend's phone

391
00:14:17,829 --> 00:14:16,639
number you can know that two plus two

392
00:14:20,629 --> 00:14:17,839
equals four

393
00:14:22,310 --> 00:14:20,639
you can know a poem word for word

394
00:14:25,030 --> 00:14:22,320
you can know your name

395
00:14:27,030 --> 00:14:25,040
an inherent in this idea of knowing

396
00:14:29,829 --> 00:14:27,040
something is the assumption that this

397
00:14:31,590 --> 00:14:29,839
knowledge is both objectively true and

398
00:14:33,110 --> 00:14:31,600
verifiable

399
00:14:34,790 --> 00:14:33,120
simple right

400
00:14:37,829 --> 00:14:34,800
not quite

401
00:14:39,990 --> 00:14:37,839
we don't know anything in a vacuum

402
00:14:42,230 --> 00:14:40,000
every piece of knowledge that we have is

403
00:14:44,389 --> 00:14:42,240
built upon a foundation of other data

404
00:14:47,350 --> 00:14:44,399
and assumptions that support and confirm

405
00:14:49,269 --> 00:14:47,360
it even if you never think about it

406
00:14:50,550 --> 00:14:49,279
you don't just know that two plus two

407
00:14:53,189 --> 00:14:50,560
equals four

408
00:14:55,189 --> 00:14:53,199
you know what two of something is you

409
00:14:57,509 --> 00:14:55,199
can picture it in your mind

410
00:14:59,509 --> 00:14:57,519
you know what a whole number is you know

411
00:15:01,030 --> 00:14:59,519
what the plus sign and the equal sign

412
00:15:03,670 --> 00:15:01,040
mean and you can perform those

413
00:15:07,269 --> 00:15:03,680
mathematical functions in your head

414
00:15:10,550 --> 00:15:07,279
but the number two like all numbers is

415
00:15:12,389 --> 00:15:10,560
itself an unprovable abstraction

416
00:15:13,990 --> 00:15:12,399
using number theory and the shared

417
00:15:15,509 --> 00:15:14,000
understanding that we have of what

418
00:15:18,230 --> 00:15:15,519
numbers are

419
00:15:20,470 --> 00:15:18,240
we've created logic which itself is the

420
00:15:22,790 --> 00:15:20,480
fundamental underpinning of science and

421
00:15:25,189 --> 00:15:22,800
language and basically all of the cool

422
00:15:27,750 --> 00:15:25,199
stuff that humans know how to do

423
00:15:28,710 --> 00:15:27,760
but while we can use numbers to do all

424
00:15:32,470 --> 00:15:28,720
of that

425
00:15:35,910 --> 00:15:32,480
we can't use numbers to prove themselves

426
00:15:38,550 --> 00:15:35,920
you could say that 2 equals 2 but saying

427
00:15:40,629 --> 00:15:38,560
that 2 equals itself is not a meaningful

428
00:15:43,590 --> 00:15:40,639
statement in this context just like if

429
00:15:45,910 --> 00:15:43,600
you said blue is blue

430
00:15:47,430 --> 00:15:45,920
neither is saying that three minus one

431
00:15:49,269 --> 00:15:47,440
equals two

432
00:15:50,870 --> 00:15:49,279
we can prove that that equation is

433
00:15:53,590 --> 00:15:50,880
consistent with the framework of

434
00:15:55,910 --> 00:15:53,600
mathematics but we can't prove that it's

435
00:15:57,509 --> 00:15:55,920
real outside of the framework of

436
00:15:59,590 --> 00:15:57,519
mathematics

437
00:16:01,590 --> 00:15:59,600
now i don't want to get too bogged down

438
00:16:03,990 --> 00:16:01,600
here because this line of questioning

439
00:16:05,910 --> 00:16:04,000
inevitably leads to the question of

440
00:16:06,870 --> 00:16:05,920
whether we can actually know anything at

441
00:16:09,189 --> 00:16:06,880
all

442
00:16:11,990 --> 00:16:09,199
if you drill down far enough into any

443
00:16:15,350 --> 00:16:12,000
single thing that we know to be true you

444
00:16:17,350 --> 00:16:15,360
inevitably hit conceptual bedrock or the

445
00:16:20,310 --> 00:16:17,360
place where your verifiable knowledge

446
00:16:22,470 --> 00:16:20,320
ends and the unverifiable abstract

447
00:16:24,629 --> 00:16:22,480
concepts and assumptions from which they

448
00:16:27,189 --> 00:16:24,639
grow begin

449
00:16:29,590 --> 00:16:27,199
logician mathematician and philosopher

450
00:16:33,030 --> 00:16:29,600
kurt gerdel first expressed this idea

451
00:16:35,030 --> 00:16:33,040
with his incompleteness theorems in 1931

452
00:16:37,189 --> 00:16:35,040
but you don't have to be a mathematician

453
00:16:39,189 --> 00:16:37,199
or philosopher to understand the

454
00:16:41,350 --> 00:16:39,199
limitations of our knowledge

455
00:16:42,629 --> 00:16:41,360
if you've ever spent any time around a

456
00:16:44,710 --> 00:16:42,639
young child

457
00:16:47,749 --> 00:16:44,720
you likely already know that each one of

458
00:16:50,710 --> 00:16:47,759
us is only about five wise away from a

459
00:16:52,629 --> 00:16:50,720
complete existential unraveling

460
00:16:54,230 --> 00:16:52,639
why is the grass green

461
00:16:56,310 --> 00:16:54,240
because it has a bright pigment called

462
00:16:57,430 --> 00:16:56,320
chlorophyll that makes it green

463
00:16:59,269 --> 00:16:57,440
why

464
00:17:01,910 --> 00:16:59,279
because plants need it to make food in a

465
00:17:02,870 --> 00:17:01,920
process called photosynthesis

466
00:17:04,470 --> 00:17:02,880
why

467
00:17:06,470 --> 00:17:04,480
because that's how it evolved over

468
00:17:07,750 --> 00:17:06,480
billions of years

469
00:17:09,909 --> 00:17:07,760
why

470
00:17:11,590 --> 00:17:09,919
god maybe or maybe it's just the random

471
00:17:13,510 --> 00:17:11,600
unfolding of events over billions of

472
00:17:15,110 --> 00:17:13,520
years i honestly don't know kid and i

473
00:17:16,789 --> 00:17:15,120
don't have time to be contemplating the

474
00:17:18,549 --> 00:17:16,799
absurdity of existence right now put

475
00:17:20,710 --> 00:17:18,559
your shoes on

476
00:17:22,789 --> 00:17:20,720
now for our purposes

477
00:17:24,630 --> 00:17:22,799
it doesn't serve us to get lost in naval

478
00:17:27,669 --> 00:17:24,640
gazing questions about whether or not

479
00:17:29,510 --> 00:17:27,679
knowledge is even possible

480
00:17:31,909 --> 00:17:29,520
we conduct our lives under the

481
00:17:34,549 --> 00:17:31,919
assumption that we can know things and

482
00:17:35,750 --> 00:17:34,559
our observable reality seems to suggest

483
00:17:37,750 --> 00:17:35,760
that we can

484
00:17:39,510 --> 00:17:37,760
because our knowledge allows us to do

485
00:17:41,830 --> 00:17:39,520
things that we otherwise wouldn't be

486
00:17:43,830 --> 00:17:41,840
able to do like calculate the exact

487
00:17:45,350 --> 00:17:43,840
angle of entry for a spaceship returning

488
00:17:46,950 --> 00:17:45,360
to earth so that it doesn't burn up in

489
00:17:49,190 --> 00:17:46,960
the atmosphere

490
00:17:50,710 --> 00:17:49,200
so if our experience suggests that

491
00:17:52,950 --> 00:17:50,720
knowledge is possible

492
00:17:54,870 --> 00:17:52,960
why am i even bringing this up

493
00:17:56,789 --> 00:17:54,880
i bring it up because i think that it's

494
00:17:59,350 --> 00:17:56,799
important to bring a certain level of

495
00:18:01,990 --> 00:17:59,360
humility to any conversation about what

496
00:18:04,630 --> 00:18:02,000
we can know and what we can't know

497
00:18:06,789 --> 00:18:04,640
we have very good and very reliable

498
00:18:09,190 --> 00:18:06,799
frameworks that allow us to understand

499
00:18:11,510 --> 00:18:09,200
complex ideas and relationships and

500
00:18:13,270 --> 00:18:11,520
methodologies that allow us to verify

501
00:18:14,630 --> 00:18:13,280
our conclusions against the conclusions

502
00:18:16,390 --> 00:18:14,640
of others

503
00:18:18,470 --> 00:18:16,400
but it's important to remember that

504
00:18:20,789 --> 00:18:18,480
these things are tools and not

505
00:18:23,830 --> 00:18:20,799
necessarily a representation of an

506
00:18:25,669 --> 00:18:23,840
objective universal reality

507
00:18:26,789 --> 00:18:25,679
this is a mistake that we make a lot as

508
00:18:29,510 --> 00:18:26,799
humans

509
00:18:31,590 --> 00:18:29,520
neil degrasse tyson has famously said

510
00:18:33,909 --> 00:18:31,600
the good thing about science is that

511
00:18:34,870 --> 00:18:33,919
it's true whether or not you believe in

512
00:18:37,110 --> 00:18:34,880
it

513
00:18:38,470 --> 00:18:37,120
and given the cultural context of the

514
00:18:40,549 --> 00:18:38,480
last few years

515
00:18:42,470 --> 00:18:40,559
many champions of science have grabbed

516
00:18:44,789 --> 00:18:42,480
on to this statement and have used it as

517
00:18:46,230 --> 00:18:44,799
both a rallying cry and as a weapon

518
00:18:47,750 --> 00:18:46,240
against those who don't share their

519
00:18:50,310 --> 00:18:47,760
views

520
00:18:52,630 --> 00:18:50,320
but if you break it down that statement

521
00:18:54,830 --> 00:18:52,640
isn't just blatantly false

522
00:18:58,070 --> 00:18:54,840
but fundamentally

523
00:19:00,230 --> 00:18:58,080
unscientific science isn't true

524
00:19:01,270 --> 00:19:00,240
science isn't a collection of verified

525
00:19:03,990 --> 00:19:01,280
facts

526
00:19:05,990 --> 00:19:04,000
science is a methodology and like any

527
00:19:09,110 --> 00:19:06,000
methodology it's as fallible as the

528
00:19:10,870 --> 00:19:09,120
people who are utilizing it

529
00:19:12,470 --> 00:19:10,880
returning to an example that we've used

530
00:19:14,150 --> 00:19:12,480
a few times now

531
00:19:17,750 --> 00:19:14,160
let's consider second century

532
00:19:20,070 --> 00:19:17,760
mathematician and astronomer ptolemy

533
00:19:23,270 --> 00:19:20,080
his model of the solar system improved

534
00:19:25,270 --> 00:19:23,280
upon past models so significantly that

535
00:19:27,830 --> 00:19:25,280
it was used to accurately predict the

536
00:19:30,630 --> 00:19:27,840
movements of celestial bodies in the sky

537
00:19:32,950 --> 00:19:30,640
for over 1400 years

538
00:19:34,549 --> 00:19:32,960
but it was also completely wrong and

539
00:19:36,789 --> 00:19:34,559
based on the assumption that the earth

540
00:19:39,190 --> 00:19:36,799
was at the center of everything

541
00:19:41,510 --> 00:19:39,200
to be clear i'm not saying that we

542
00:19:44,549 --> 00:19:41,520
shouldn't trust scientific conclusions

543
00:19:46,390 --> 00:19:44,559
the scientific method is by far the best

544
00:19:48,549 --> 00:19:46,400
way to test our assumptions about our

545
00:19:50,230 --> 00:19:48,559
reality in a way that is as free from

546
00:19:53,110 --> 00:19:50,240
bias as possible

547
00:19:55,029 --> 00:19:53,120
it's imperfect yes but we used it to put

548
00:19:56,710 --> 00:19:55,039
a man on the moon so it's still pretty

549
00:19:58,870 --> 00:19:56,720
damn amazing

550
00:20:01,510 --> 00:19:58,880
but what i am saying is that we need to

551
00:20:02,710 --> 00:20:01,520
be careful not to turn science into a

552
00:20:05,350 --> 00:20:02,720
religion

553
00:20:07,909 --> 00:20:05,360
there are no sacred cows in science

554
00:20:10,070 --> 00:20:07,919
there is no scientific fact that can't

555
00:20:12,710 --> 00:20:10,080
be undone with the introduction of a new

556
00:20:14,710 --> 00:20:12,720
data point that changes everything

557
00:20:15,909 --> 00:20:14,720
but that's a hard thing for humans to

558
00:20:17,750 --> 00:20:15,919
remember

559
00:20:19,590 --> 00:20:17,760
we live our lives with the assumption

560
00:20:22,310 --> 00:20:19,600
that we can observe and have knowledge

561
00:20:25,190 --> 00:20:22,320
of objective reality which just makes

562
00:20:27,590 --> 00:20:25,200
practical sense it keeps us safe it

563
00:20:30,390 --> 00:20:27,600
creates order where there was none it's

564
00:20:33,350 --> 00:20:30,400
the basis of civilization itself

565
00:20:35,430 --> 00:20:33,360
so it can make us super uncomfortable to

566
00:20:38,230 --> 00:20:35,440
recognize that our sense of objective

567
00:20:39,510 --> 00:20:38,240
reality is so contingent and potentially

568
00:20:41,270 --> 00:20:39,520
tenuous

569
00:20:42,870 --> 00:20:41,280
we don't like to think about the fact

570
00:20:45,350 --> 00:20:42,880
that everything that we regard to be

571
00:20:47,669 --> 00:20:45,360
true is essentially just a hypothesis

572
00:20:49,909 --> 00:20:47,679
that is waiting to be disproven

573
00:20:50,950 --> 00:20:49,919
we don't like i don't know we like

574
00:20:53,830 --> 00:20:50,960
answers

575
00:20:55,750 --> 00:20:53,840
are clear

576
00:20:57,669 --> 00:20:55,760
we like to believe that our species has

577
00:20:59,510 --> 00:20:57,679
cracked everything from the structure of

578
00:21:01,029 --> 00:20:59,520
atoms to the limits of the universe and

579
00:21:03,750 --> 00:21:01,039
that there's really nothing left for us

580
00:21:05,830 --> 00:21:03,760
to know and when we have questions about

581
00:21:08,630 --> 00:21:05,840
our reality we increasingly look to

582
00:21:11,830 --> 00:21:08,640
scientists to be the arbiters of truth

583
00:21:14,310 --> 00:21:11,840
but scientists don't have answers they

584
00:21:17,029 --> 00:21:14,320
have science which is a methodology that

585
00:21:19,029 --> 00:21:17,039
allows us to approach the truth but is

586
00:21:21,270 --> 00:21:19,039
not the truth itself

587
00:21:22,230 --> 00:21:21,280
and it's not just that their answers can

588
00:21:28,710 --> 00:21:22,240
change

589
00:21:30,630 --> 00:21:28,720
and a pattern that we see repeated again

590
00:21:32,549 --> 00:21:30,640
and again throughout history

591
00:21:35,029 --> 00:21:32,559
almost without exception

592
00:21:36,789 --> 00:21:35,039
is that when we get new data that upends

593
00:21:39,110 --> 00:21:36,799
our models and invalidates our

594
00:21:40,710 --> 00:21:39,120
fundamental understanding of the nature

595
00:21:42,950 --> 00:21:40,720
of our reality

596
00:21:45,909 --> 00:21:42,960
that data is initially rejected as

597
00:21:48,070 --> 00:21:45,919
impossible ridiculed as pseudoscience

598
00:21:50,230 --> 00:21:48,080
and marginalized along with all those

599
00:21:51,750 --> 00:21:50,240
who dare to entertain such heretical

600
00:21:54,230 --> 00:21:51,760
viewpoints

601
00:21:55,909 --> 00:21:54,240
and seemingly no one is totally immune

602
00:21:59,190 --> 00:21:55,919
from this bias against data that

603
00:22:00,789 --> 00:21:59,200
threatens our worldview einstein himself

604
00:22:02,950 --> 00:22:00,799
said that the greatest blunder of his

605
00:22:04,630 --> 00:22:02,960
career was not believing what the math

606
00:22:06,950 --> 00:22:04,640
was telling him about the nature of the

607
00:22:09,510 --> 00:22:06,960
universe that it wasn't static and

608
00:22:13,110 --> 00:22:09,520
unchanging but was actually expanding at

609
00:22:15,510 --> 00:22:13,120
an accelerating pace einstein invented

610
00:22:18,230 --> 00:22:15,520
the cosmological constant to normalize

611
00:22:20,149 --> 00:22:18,240
his equations and it wasn't until edwin

612
00:22:22,390 --> 00:22:20,159
hubble proved that the light from

613
00:22:24,549 --> 00:22:22,400
distant galaxies was redshifted away

614
00:22:26,870 --> 00:22:24,559
from the earth that he realized that

615
00:22:29,270 --> 00:22:26,880
he'd been wrong all along

616
00:22:30,870 --> 00:22:29,280
and i would argue that as profound as

617
00:22:33,590 --> 00:22:30,880
einstein's discoveries about the

618
00:22:36,470 --> 00:22:33,600
universe were the idea that we are not

619
00:22:39,029 --> 00:22:36,480
alone and perhaps never have been

620
00:22:40,950 --> 00:22:39,039
represents the single greatest paradigm

621
00:22:43,190 --> 00:22:40,960
shift in human history

622
00:22:45,430 --> 00:22:43,200
the implications are as challenging as

623
00:22:47,190 --> 00:22:45,440
they are wide reaching and we should

624
00:22:50,070 --> 00:22:47,200
expect that it will make people

625
00:22:52,070 --> 00:22:50,080
uncomfortable it will make people angry

626
00:22:54,630 --> 00:22:52,080
it will make people defensive

627
00:22:57,190 --> 00:22:54,640
because to be clear what we're talking

628
00:22:59,669 --> 00:22:57,200
about is nothing less than rewriting

629
00:23:02,070 --> 00:22:59,679
human history as we know it

630
00:23:04,870 --> 00:23:02,080
but sometimes that's exactly what

631
00:23:06,870 --> 00:23:04,880
science requires of us

632
00:23:09,110 --> 00:23:06,880
all right i think we've spent enough

633
00:23:10,870 --> 00:23:09,120
time in the philosophical weeds

634
00:23:12,390 --> 00:23:10,880
let's get to talking about the matter at

635
00:23:14,549 --> 00:23:12,400
hand which is

636
00:23:16,549 --> 00:23:14,559
what do we know for sure about early

637
00:23:18,630 --> 00:23:16,559
human civilization

638
00:23:20,070 --> 00:23:18,640
as we'll see this isn't the easiest

639
00:23:22,470 --> 00:23:20,080
question to answer

640
00:23:24,350 --> 00:23:22,480
at least in part because archaeology

641
00:23:26,070 --> 00:23:24,360
itself presents some unique

642
00:23:27,830 --> 00:23:26,080
epistemological challenges and

643
00:23:29,510 --> 00:23:27,840
complications

644
00:23:31,350 --> 00:23:29,520
let's start with dating

645
00:23:33,750 --> 00:23:31,360
if you want to understand what happened

646
00:23:36,390 --> 00:23:33,760
in the distant past you need to be able

647
00:23:38,549 --> 00:23:36,400
to construct some kind of a narrative

648
00:23:40,549 --> 00:23:38,559
and to construct an accurate narrative

649
00:23:42,870 --> 00:23:40,559
you need to know not just when things

650
00:23:46,710 --> 00:23:42,880
happened but the order in which they

651
00:23:49,430 --> 00:23:46,720
happened relative to other things

652
00:23:50,870 --> 00:23:49,440
so how do researchers figure out how old

653
00:23:52,470 --> 00:23:50,880
something is

654
00:23:53,909 --> 00:23:52,480
there are several different methods

655
00:23:56,470 --> 00:23:53,919
depending on what it is that you're

656
00:24:01,430 --> 00:23:56,480
trying to date and they fall into two

657
00:24:03,350 --> 00:24:01,440
main categories relative and absolute

658
00:24:05,190 --> 00:24:03,360
relative dating techniques involve

659
00:24:07,510 --> 00:24:05,200
establishing a basic time frame for

660
00:24:09,990 --> 00:24:07,520
something by comparing it to other old

661
00:24:11,110 --> 00:24:10,000
things and are therefore far less

662
00:24:12,789 --> 00:24:11,120
precise

663
00:24:15,110 --> 00:24:12,799
it's actually more accurate to think of

664
00:24:16,470 --> 00:24:15,120
these methods as ordering rather than

665
00:24:21,990 --> 00:24:16,480
dating

666
00:24:24,310 --> 00:24:22,000
techniques were the main way that

667
00:24:26,390 --> 00:24:24,320
researchers attempted to assign dates to

668
00:24:28,549 --> 00:24:26,400
things and although they aren't as

669
00:24:30,789 --> 00:24:28,559
precise many of these techniques are

670
00:24:33,029 --> 00:24:30,799
still used today

671
00:24:35,350 --> 00:24:33,039
one such method of relative dating is

672
00:24:37,669 --> 00:24:35,360
biostratigraphy

673
00:24:39,269 --> 00:24:37,679
as rock and sediment build up over time

674
00:24:41,830 --> 00:24:39,279
they form layers

675
00:24:43,909 --> 00:24:41,840
this means that in most cases you can

676
00:24:46,470 --> 00:24:43,919
assume that if you find a fossil or an

677
00:24:47,990 --> 00:24:46,480
artifact at a certain layer it's older

678
00:24:48,789 --> 00:24:48,000
than anything that would be found above

679
00:24:54,470 --> 00:24:48,799
it

680
00:24:56,630 --> 00:24:54,480
called funnel association

681
00:24:58,390 --> 00:24:56,640
sometimes researchers can compare things

682
00:25:00,870 --> 00:24:58,400
to other fossils that were found in the

683
00:25:02,870 --> 00:25:00,880
same layer if you know how old those

684
00:25:04,870 --> 00:25:02,880
fossils are then you can establish that

685
00:25:06,310 --> 00:25:04,880
what you're dating was around at the

686
00:25:08,070 --> 00:25:06,320
same time

687
00:25:09,590 --> 00:25:08,080
you can potentially get more precise

688
00:25:12,149 --> 00:25:09,600
dating information by looking

689
00:25:13,750 --> 00:25:12,159
specifically at microscopic animal life

690
00:25:16,149 --> 00:25:13,760
in the fossil record

691
00:25:19,190 --> 00:25:16,159
microfauna tend to evolve much faster

692
00:25:21,029 --> 00:25:19,200
than larger organisms so each species

693
00:25:23,350 --> 00:25:21,039
exists for a much shorter time in the

694
00:25:25,669 --> 00:25:23,360
fossil record allowing researchers to

695
00:25:27,269 --> 00:25:25,679
zero in more precisely on a particular

696
00:25:29,269 --> 00:25:27,279
time frame

697
00:25:31,110 --> 00:25:29,279
another method of relative dating is

698
00:25:33,190 --> 00:25:31,120
paleomagnetism

699
00:25:34,870 --> 00:25:33,200
about every one hundred thousand to six

700
00:25:36,870 --> 00:25:34,880
hundred thousand years the earth's

701
00:25:38,870 --> 00:25:36,880
magnetic poles flip

702
00:25:41,190 --> 00:25:38,880
these changes can be detected by looking

703
00:25:43,669 --> 00:25:41,200
at the orientation of magnetic crystals

704
00:25:45,750 --> 00:25:43,679
in certain kinds of rock

705
00:25:47,669 --> 00:25:45,760
now obviously a hundred thousand to six

706
00:25:49,909 --> 00:25:47,679
hundred thousand years is a pretty long

707
00:25:52,710 --> 00:25:49,919
time frame making this method not very

708
00:25:54,630 --> 00:25:52,720
precise however it is often used as a

709
00:25:57,350 --> 00:25:54,640
check against other methods of dating to

710
00:25:59,669 --> 00:25:57,360
help confirm their conclusions

711
00:26:01,350 --> 00:25:59,679
researchers can also use a method called

712
00:26:03,110 --> 00:26:01,360
tefrochronology

713
00:26:05,830 --> 00:26:03,120
whenever there is a major volcanic

714
00:26:07,750 --> 00:26:05,840
eruption large amounts of dust rock and

715
00:26:09,830 --> 00:26:07,760
other materials are shot up into the

716
00:26:11,830 --> 00:26:09,840
atmosphere where they eventually rain

717
00:26:13,590 --> 00:26:11,840
down on the land below

718
00:26:16,710 --> 00:26:13,600
this layer of sediment will have a

719
00:26:19,110 --> 00:26:16,720
unique geomagnetic fingerprint so if you

720
00:26:21,110 --> 00:26:19,120
know the date of a particular eruption

721
00:26:23,350 --> 00:26:21,120
you can date things relative to that

722
00:26:25,830 --> 00:26:23,360
layer with everything above it occurring

723
00:26:28,470 --> 00:26:25,840
after the eruption and everything below

724
00:26:30,230 --> 00:26:28,480
it occurring before

725
00:26:32,870 --> 00:26:30,240
as you can see from these methods they

726
00:26:34,789 --> 00:26:32,880
aren't particularly precise however

727
00:26:36,710 --> 00:26:34,799
scientists have also developed several

728
00:26:38,789 --> 00:26:36,720
other methods that allow them to get a

729
00:26:40,149 --> 00:26:38,799
much more accurate sense of the age of

730
00:26:42,630 --> 00:26:40,159
something

731
00:26:44,950 --> 00:26:42,640
the first and by far the most common is

732
00:26:47,990 --> 00:26:44,960
radiocarbon dating which involves

733
00:26:50,149 --> 00:26:48,000
measuring the quantities of carbon-14

734
00:26:52,070 --> 00:26:50,159
carbon-14 forms high up in the

735
00:26:54,950 --> 00:26:52,080
atmosphere and then is breathed in by

736
00:26:57,430 --> 00:26:54,960
plants and breathed out by animals as a

737
00:26:59,830 --> 00:26:57,440
result you can find carbon 14 in

738
00:27:03,190 --> 00:26:59,840
basically anything that's alive

739
00:27:05,510 --> 00:27:03,200
carbon 14 is a radioactive isotope a

740
00:27:07,430 --> 00:27:05,520
radioactive isotope is basically a

741
00:27:09,269 --> 00:27:07,440
version of an atom that has a different

742
00:27:12,070 --> 00:27:09,279
number of neutrons

743
00:27:15,510 --> 00:27:12,080
carbon usually has 6 neutrons but carbon

744
00:27:17,750 --> 00:27:15,520
14 has 8 which makes it both heavier and

745
00:27:22,710 --> 00:27:17,760
less stable

746
00:27:25,190 --> 00:27:22,720
breaks down over time with one of its

747
00:27:26,310 --> 00:27:25,200
neutrons splitting into a proton and an

748
00:27:33,190 --> 00:27:26,320
electron

749
00:27:36,789 --> 00:27:33,200
and one more proton

750
00:27:38,950 --> 00:27:36,799
carbon 14 decays into nitrogen

751
00:27:41,990 --> 00:27:38,960
this process begins as soon as something

752
00:27:44,630 --> 00:27:42,000
dies and stops taking in carbon 14 but

753
00:27:45,590 --> 00:27:44,640
the process of radioactive decay is very

754
00:27:47,669 --> 00:27:45,600
slow

755
00:27:49,669 --> 00:27:47,679
it's half-life or the amount of time it

756
00:27:52,750 --> 00:27:49,679
takes for half of a given quantity of

757
00:27:54,870 --> 00:27:52,760
carbon-14 to decay is

758
00:27:56,630 --> 00:27:54,880
5730 years

759
00:27:58,950 --> 00:27:56,640
scientists are then able to use the

760
00:28:01,669 --> 00:27:58,960
amount of carbon-14 left in organic

761
00:28:04,230 --> 00:28:01,679
materials like bones or plant fibers or

762
00:28:06,470 --> 00:28:04,240
ashes from a campfire to figure out how

763
00:28:08,389 --> 00:28:06,480
old something is

764
00:28:10,070 --> 00:28:08,399
however there are limitations to

765
00:28:12,230 --> 00:28:10,080
radiocarbon dating

766
00:28:14,950 --> 00:28:12,240
the first is that after a period of

767
00:28:17,590 --> 00:28:14,960
about 50 000 years organic materials

768
00:28:20,630 --> 00:28:17,600
have lost more than 99 of their carbon

769
00:28:23,029 --> 00:28:20,640
14 which means that we can only use it

770
00:28:24,310 --> 00:28:23,039
to date things from about the last 40

771
00:28:26,549 --> 00:28:24,320
thousand years

772
00:28:29,350 --> 00:28:26,559
the other limitation is that it only

773
00:28:31,590 --> 00:28:29,360
works on organic matter so you can't use

774
00:28:33,269 --> 00:28:31,600
it on things like rock metal or other

775
00:28:35,909 --> 00:28:33,279
minerals

776
00:28:38,310 --> 00:28:35,919
to date rock researchers usually turn to

777
00:28:39,669 --> 00:28:38,320
either single crystal fusion or uranium

778
00:28:41,510 --> 00:28:39,679
series dating

779
00:28:43,990 --> 00:28:41,520
without getting too in the weeds like

780
00:28:46,230 --> 00:28:44,000
radiocarbon dating both of these dating

781
00:28:48,950 --> 00:28:46,240
techniques involve using the decay rates

782
00:28:50,630 --> 00:28:48,960
of various isotopes to determine how old

783
00:28:53,190 --> 00:28:50,640
something is

784
00:28:55,029 --> 00:28:53,200
conveniently while uranium series dating

785
00:28:57,029 --> 00:28:55,039
only works for things that are forty

786
00:28:59,830 --> 00:28:57,039
thousand to five hundred thousand years

787
00:29:02,070 --> 00:28:59,840
old single crystal fusion works best on

788
00:29:04,310 --> 00:29:02,080
things that are 500 000 years old or

789
00:29:06,230 --> 00:29:04,320
older and it actually gets more accurate

790
00:29:08,549 --> 00:29:06,240
over time

791
00:29:10,070 --> 00:29:08,559
for materials like teeth and coral that

792
00:29:12,710 --> 00:29:10,080
are especially good at trapping

793
00:29:14,710 --> 00:29:12,720
electrons from the sun in cosmic rays

794
00:29:17,350 --> 00:29:14,720
researchers can use a technique called

795
00:29:19,110 --> 00:29:17,360
trapped charge dating this can be a

796
00:29:21,350 --> 00:29:19,120
complicated process that involves

797
00:29:23,190 --> 00:29:21,360
looking at multiple variables including

798
00:29:25,909 --> 00:29:23,200
the amount of radiation that the object

799
00:29:28,549 --> 00:29:25,919
was exposed to each year to calculate

800
00:29:31,110 --> 00:29:28,559
the rate at which electrons were trapped

801
00:29:32,870 --> 00:29:31,120
and to make things more complicated it's

802
00:29:35,510 --> 00:29:32,880
only accurate for things that are less

803
00:29:38,149 --> 00:29:35,520
than 100 000 years old

804
00:29:40,470 --> 00:29:38,159
besides teeth and coral certain silicate

805
00:29:42,070 --> 00:29:40,480
rocks like quartz are also very good at

806
00:29:43,909 --> 00:29:42,080
trapping electrons

807
00:29:46,149 --> 00:29:43,919
for researchers who are specifically

808
00:29:49,470 --> 00:29:46,159
working with prehistoric tools made of

809
00:29:51,110 --> 00:29:49,480
flint which is a hardened form of quartz

810
00:29:53,669 --> 00:29:51,120
thermoluminescence can help them

811
00:29:56,470 --> 00:29:53,679
determine the age of the tool itself

812
00:29:58,549 --> 00:29:56,480
not just the materials it was made from

813
00:30:00,470 --> 00:29:58,559
the last stage in the process of making

814
00:30:02,630 --> 00:30:00,480
these tools was usually to drop them

815
00:30:04,710 --> 00:30:02,640
into a fire which frees all of the

816
00:30:07,190 --> 00:30:04,720
electrons essentially resetting the

817
00:30:09,669 --> 00:30:07,200
clock for that object this allows

818
00:30:11,350 --> 00:30:09,679
researchers to determine how long ago it

819
00:30:12,710 --> 00:30:11,360
was made

820
00:30:15,510 --> 00:30:12,720
for things that have been buried for a

821
00:30:17,669 --> 00:30:15,520
long time researchers can use optically

822
00:30:19,510 --> 00:30:17,679
stimulated luminescence in a process

823
00:30:22,070 --> 00:30:19,520
that allows them to determine

824
00:30:23,909 --> 00:30:22,080
not when something was made but how long

825
00:30:25,909 --> 00:30:23,919
it's been since it was last exposed to

826
00:30:27,909 --> 00:30:25,919
sunlight

827
00:30:30,070 --> 00:30:27,919
there are a few other methods of dating

828
00:30:31,909 --> 00:30:30,080
but i think you'll get the idea

829
00:30:33,669 --> 00:30:31,919
you don't need to know every method of

830
00:30:35,750 --> 00:30:33,679
dating or how it works

831
00:30:37,510 --> 00:30:35,760
what's more important is to understand

832
00:30:39,350 --> 00:30:37,520
the challenges that researchers

833
00:30:41,269 --> 00:30:39,360
encounter when they're trying to date an

834
00:30:43,430 --> 00:30:41,279
archaeological find

835
00:30:45,590 --> 00:30:43,440
each method has its strengths and its

836
00:30:48,710 --> 00:30:45,600
limitations and because of these

837
00:30:50,710 --> 00:30:48,720
limitations researchers generally strive

838
00:30:52,789 --> 00:30:50,720
to date things as many different ways as

839
00:30:54,070 --> 00:30:52,799
possible to help them zero in on the

840
00:30:55,830 --> 00:30:54,080
correct date

841
00:30:58,230 --> 00:30:55,840
the result is that there is a lot of

842
00:31:00,149 --> 00:30:58,240
variability in how accurate dating of

843
00:31:02,389 --> 00:31:00,159
these objects can be

844
00:31:04,310 --> 00:31:02,399
if something is dated using at least two

845
00:31:06,470 --> 00:31:04,320
different methods and is verified by

846
00:31:08,710 --> 00:31:06,480
multiple independent labs who all point

847
00:31:10,549 --> 00:31:08,720
to the same time frame you can have a

848
00:31:12,389 --> 00:31:10,559
pretty high degree of confidence that

849
00:31:14,310 --> 00:31:12,399
that date is legit

850
00:31:16,310 --> 00:31:14,320
if something is only dated using one

851
00:31:21,029 --> 00:31:16,320
method or if it isn't independently

852
00:31:22,870 --> 00:31:21,039
verified that date may be less reliable

853
00:31:25,269 --> 00:31:22,880
and then there is the case of the things

854
00:31:27,909 --> 00:31:25,279
that you can't date accurately with any

855
00:31:29,750 --> 00:31:27,919
of the above methods and maddeningly

856
00:31:31,990 --> 00:31:29,760
this applies to a category of

857
00:31:34,630 --> 00:31:32,000
archaeological treasures that we'd most

858
00:31:36,870 --> 00:31:34,640
like to date which is basically any

859
00:31:38,950 --> 00:31:36,880
structure made out of stone

860
00:31:41,029 --> 00:31:38,960
thousands of years ago cultures around

861
00:31:43,750 --> 00:31:41,039
the world erected massive stone

862
00:31:45,750 --> 00:31:43,760
monuments temples and other structures

863
00:31:47,990 --> 00:31:45,760
out of enormous blocks of stones

864
00:31:49,750 --> 00:31:48,000
referred to as megaliths

865
00:31:52,470 --> 00:31:49,760
many of these megalithic structures

866
00:31:54,310 --> 00:31:52,480
remain largely intact today even as the

867
00:31:56,870 --> 00:31:54,320
civilizations and cultures that built

868
00:31:58,950 --> 00:31:56,880
them have been lost to the sands of time

869
00:32:01,590 --> 00:31:58,960
their stunning architecture stirs our

870
00:32:04,310 --> 00:32:01,600
sense of wonder their confounding size

871
00:32:06,470 --> 00:32:04,320
pricks at the corners of our imagination

872
00:32:08,950 --> 00:32:06,480
their mysteries call to us and there's

873
00:32:11,590 --> 00:32:08,960
this uncanny sense that if only we could

874
00:32:13,509 --> 00:32:11,600
unravel their secrets we might gain some

875
00:32:16,149 --> 00:32:13,519
special insight or knowledge that

876
00:32:19,750 --> 00:32:16,159
somehow has been lost

877
00:32:21,430 --> 00:32:19,760
they're also extremely difficult to date

878
00:32:22,870 --> 00:32:21,440
we can tell when the stone was formed

879
00:32:24,710 --> 00:32:22,880
geologically

880
00:32:26,470 --> 00:32:24,720
we can make some assumptions about what

881
00:32:28,310 --> 00:32:26,480
kind of tools would have been needed to

882
00:32:30,870 --> 00:32:28,320
build these structures that can help us

883
00:32:33,269 --> 00:32:30,880
to pin it to a particular time period

884
00:32:35,509 --> 00:32:33,279
we can compare it stylistically to other

885
00:32:37,509 --> 00:32:35,519
art architecture and writing that we are

886
00:32:40,149 --> 00:32:37,519
able to date and draw some conclusions

887
00:32:41,990 --> 00:32:40,159
that way and we can often date organic

888
00:32:43,430 --> 00:32:42,000
and other materials found in and around

889
00:32:45,350 --> 00:32:43,440
the site

890
00:32:48,149 --> 00:32:45,360
but all of these are indirect and

891
00:32:49,669 --> 00:32:48,159
imprecise ways at arriving at a date and

892
00:32:51,590 --> 00:32:49,679
if you're working with the wrong set of

893
00:32:53,909 --> 00:32:51,600
assumptions to begin with

894
00:32:56,950 --> 00:32:53,919
you could misdate something entirely

895
00:32:58,950 --> 00:32:56,960
it's a messy business for instance you

896
00:33:01,350 --> 00:32:58,960
could find a crypt with bones in it and

897
00:33:03,269 --> 00:33:01,360
date the bones to a certain time period

898
00:33:04,789 --> 00:33:03,279
and then assume that the construction of

899
00:33:06,549 --> 00:33:04,799
that crypt was more or less

900
00:33:07,909 --> 00:33:06,559
contemporaneous to the people who were

901
00:33:09,750 --> 00:33:07,919
buried there

902
00:33:11,990 --> 00:33:09,760
but what if it had been in use for

903
00:33:14,070 --> 00:33:12,000
thousands of years before that what if

904
00:33:16,789 --> 00:33:14,080
it had changed hands a few times due to

905
00:33:19,110 --> 00:33:16,799
war or even just the passage of time

906
00:33:21,269 --> 00:33:19,120
the most educated guess in the world is

907
00:33:23,029 --> 00:33:21,279
still just a guess without anything to

908
00:33:25,029 --> 00:33:23,039
confirm it

909
00:33:27,350 --> 00:33:25,039
another challenge in dating megalithic

910
00:33:30,230 --> 00:33:27,360
structures or really any structure built

911
00:33:32,710 --> 00:33:30,240
in antiquity is that cultures around the

912
00:33:34,630 --> 00:33:32,720
world have shown a tendency to rebuild

913
00:33:35,830 --> 00:33:34,640
on top of an existing structure or

914
00:33:37,750 --> 00:33:35,840
foundation

915
00:33:39,350 --> 00:33:37,760
you see this especially in places that

916
00:33:40,789 --> 00:33:39,360
have a religious or spiritual

917
00:33:42,870 --> 00:33:40,799
significance

918
00:33:44,470 --> 00:33:42,880
there's perhaps no place on earth where

919
00:33:46,710 --> 00:33:44,480
we see this occurring more than in

920
00:33:48,789 --> 00:33:46,720
jerusalem where three different

921
00:33:51,029 --> 00:33:48,799
monotheistic religions judaism

922
00:33:53,430 --> 00:33:51,039
christianity and islam have some of

923
00:33:55,750 --> 00:33:53,440
their most sacred sites

924
00:33:58,630 --> 00:33:55,760
and in some cases these sites are

925
00:34:00,789 --> 00:33:58,640
literally right on top of each other

926
00:34:03,430 --> 00:34:00,799
the islamic holy site the dome of the

927
00:34:05,990 --> 00:34:03,440
rock sits on temple mount in jerusalem

928
00:34:07,509 --> 00:34:06,000
over a spot that is believed to be both

929
00:34:09,990 --> 00:34:07,519
the place where the god of the old

930
00:34:10,869 --> 00:34:10,000
testament asked abraham to sacrifice his

931
00:34:12,550 --> 00:34:10,879
son

932
00:34:14,149 --> 00:34:12,560
and the spot from which muhammad

933
00:34:15,990 --> 00:34:14,159
ascended into heaven

934
00:34:18,550 --> 00:34:16,000
the dome of the rock is built on the

935
00:34:21,990 --> 00:34:18,560
former site of the second jewish temple

936
00:34:23,669 --> 00:34:22,000
which was first built in 516 bc

937
00:34:25,669 --> 00:34:23,679
which in turn was said to have been

938
00:34:27,909 --> 00:34:25,679
built on the foundation of solomon's

939
00:34:30,470 --> 00:34:27,919
temple which was said to be completed

940
00:34:32,550 --> 00:34:30,480
around 957 bc

941
00:34:34,950 --> 00:34:32,560
the western wall is believed to be a

942
00:34:38,069 --> 00:34:34,960
remnant of the second temple

943
00:34:40,629 --> 00:34:38,079
so in this one spot you see layers upon

944
00:34:43,669 --> 00:34:40,639
layers upon layers of history

945
00:34:45,669 --> 00:34:43,679
and this creates complications

946
00:34:47,430 --> 00:34:45,679
obviously we can't really go digging

947
00:34:49,030 --> 00:34:47,440
around these sites to try to learn more

948
00:34:50,869 --> 00:34:49,040
about what's under them

949
00:34:52,950 --> 00:34:50,879
beyond their profound significance to

950
00:34:55,030 --> 00:34:52,960
billions of people around the world

951
00:34:57,030 --> 00:34:55,040
their archaeological treasures in their

952
00:34:58,950 --> 00:34:57,040
own right doing anything that could

953
00:35:00,390 --> 00:34:58,960
potentially damage these structures is

954
00:35:02,230 --> 00:35:00,400
unthinkable

955
00:35:05,030 --> 00:35:02,240
and because we aren't able to study what

956
00:35:06,870 --> 00:35:05,040
lies underneath these sites the evidence

957
00:35:09,270 --> 00:35:06,880
for any older structures that may have

958
00:35:11,349 --> 00:35:09,280
come before is lost to us their

959
00:35:13,910 --> 00:35:11,359
mysteries and meanings swept away by the

960
00:35:15,510 --> 00:35:13,920
sands of time

961
00:35:17,510 --> 00:35:15,520
another thing that makes megalithic

962
00:35:18,310 --> 00:35:17,520
structures particularly difficult to

963
00:35:20,550 --> 00:35:18,320
date

964
00:35:22,150 --> 00:35:20,560
is that they are built to last for a

965
00:35:24,150 --> 00:35:22,160
really long time

966
00:35:25,829 --> 00:35:24,160
far longer than anything else built by

967
00:35:27,910 --> 00:35:25,839
humans

968
00:35:30,150 --> 00:35:27,920
to help put that into perspective you

969
00:35:32,630 --> 00:35:30,160
can think about it this way if every

970
00:35:35,829 --> 00:35:32,640
single last human alive disappeared from

971
00:35:37,990 --> 00:35:35,839
the planet tomorrow within just 1 000

972
00:35:40,230 --> 00:35:38,000
years almost all traces of our

973
00:35:43,349 --> 00:35:40,240
civilization will have been eroded

974
00:35:45,910 --> 00:35:43,359
buried or otherwise swallowed by nature

975
00:35:48,069 --> 00:35:45,920
even manhattan will once again be a lush

976
00:35:50,230 --> 00:35:48,079
green island much like it was when it

977
00:35:52,230 --> 00:35:50,240
was first explored by henry hudson in

978
00:35:54,150 --> 00:35:52,240
1609

979
00:35:56,230 --> 00:35:54,160
some signs of humanity will still remain

980
00:35:57,990 --> 00:35:56,240
though the washington monument will

981
00:36:00,230 --> 00:35:58,000
still be standing though it would likely

982
00:36:02,790 --> 00:36:00,240
be underwater and the walls of notre

983
00:36:05,109 --> 00:36:02,800
dame in paris may still be recognizable

984
00:36:07,430 --> 00:36:05,119
stonehenge will still stand

985
00:36:10,470 --> 00:36:07,440
but if you zoom out to 10 000 years

986
00:36:12,390 --> 00:36:10,480
after humans what would remain then

987
00:36:13,990 --> 00:36:12,400
the great wall of china will have eroded

988
00:36:15,430 --> 00:36:14,000
tremendously though it will still be

989
00:36:17,510 --> 00:36:15,440
recognizable

990
00:36:19,349 --> 00:36:17,520
the pyramids and the sphinx will likely

991
00:36:20,630 --> 00:36:19,359
be gone unless they were buried by the

992
00:36:22,630 --> 00:36:20,640
sahara

993
00:36:24,870 --> 00:36:22,640
only our largest stone structures would

994
00:36:29,030 --> 00:36:24,880
remain like the remnants of the hoover

995
00:36:31,430 --> 00:36:29,040
dam the faces on mount rushmore however

996
00:36:33,430 --> 00:36:31,440
could survive in a recognizable form for

997
00:36:35,190 --> 00:36:33,440
millennia

998
00:36:37,109 --> 00:36:35,200
this is because granite one of the

999
00:36:39,670 --> 00:36:37,119
hardest kinds of rock and a popular

1000
00:36:42,230 --> 00:36:39,680
megalithic building material erodes at

1001
00:36:43,190 --> 00:36:42,240
only about one inch every ten thousand

1002
00:36:44,790 --> 00:36:43,200
years

1003
00:36:46,790 --> 00:36:44,800
so when we're talking about large

1004
00:36:49,109 --> 00:36:46,800
structures built with granite or

1005
00:36:50,870 --> 00:36:49,119
similarly durable blocks of stone

1006
00:36:53,910 --> 00:36:50,880
we're talking about something that has

1007
00:36:56,390 --> 00:36:53,920
the ability to exist and endure outside

1008
00:36:58,230 --> 00:36:56,400
of the normal human time scale

1009
00:37:01,109 --> 00:36:58,240
in the time it would take for new york

1010
00:37:03,829 --> 00:37:01,119
city to become a forest again a megalith

1011
00:37:05,670 --> 00:37:03,839
will have undergone a bit of weathering

1012
00:37:07,910 --> 00:37:05,680
when we're talking about structures that

1013
00:37:09,910 --> 00:37:07,920
have the ability to endure for thousands

1014
00:37:12,150 --> 00:37:09,920
of years if not tens of thousands of

1015
00:37:14,150 --> 00:37:12,160
years and without any direct way to

1016
00:37:16,069 --> 00:37:14,160
confirm when they were built

1017
00:37:17,829 --> 00:37:16,079
it's entirely possible that our

1018
00:37:19,829 --> 00:37:17,839
understanding of how old they are is

1019
00:37:23,109 --> 00:37:19,839
entirely wrong

1020
00:37:25,190 --> 00:37:23,119
and if as some archaeologists suggest

1021
00:37:27,430 --> 00:37:25,200
some of these megalithic structures are

1022
00:37:29,109 --> 00:37:27,440
older than we previously thought

1023
00:37:30,710 --> 00:37:29,119
what might that mean for the story of

1024
00:37:32,790 --> 00:37:30,720
humanity

1025
00:37:35,430 --> 00:37:32,800
and what might we discover about

1026
00:37:40,240 --> 00:37:35,440
ourselves as we begin to reimagine the

1027
00:39:03,030 --> 00:38:55,020
[Music]

1028
00:39:05,190 --> 00:39:03,040
and beyond challenges with dating the

1029
00:39:06,790 --> 00:39:05,200
most interesting and mysterious remnants

1030
00:39:08,870 --> 00:39:06,800
of our ancient past

1031
00:39:11,349 --> 00:39:08,880
archaeology itself presents some

1032
00:39:13,829 --> 00:39:11,359
additional epistemological challenges as

1033
00:39:16,230 --> 00:39:13,839
a result of the unique way the data is

1034
00:39:18,630 --> 00:39:16,240
collected in this field of science

1035
00:39:21,670 --> 00:39:18,640
for example unlike most other branches

1036
00:39:23,589 --> 00:39:21,680
of science archaeology often involves

1037
00:39:25,670 --> 00:39:23,599
rare discoveries that can't be

1038
00:39:27,829 --> 00:39:25,680
replicated at will

1039
00:39:30,230 --> 00:39:27,839
one of the most important aspects of

1040
00:39:32,550 --> 00:39:30,240
validating scientific conclusions is the

1041
00:39:33,510 --> 00:39:32,560
ability to replicate results

1042
00:39:35,589 --> 00:39:33,520
however

1043
00:39:37,829 --> 00:39:35,599
archaeological discoveries tend to be

1044
00:39:39,990 --> 00:39:37,839
rare and they only get more rare the

1045
00:39:42,150 --> 00:39:40,000
farther back in time you go

1046
00:39:44,470 --> 00:39:42,160
sometimes there's very little to compare

1047
00:39:46,950 --> 00:39:44,480
a site to which makes it even more

1048
00:39:49,109 --> 00:39:46,960
challenging to draw conclusions

1049
00:39:52,630 --> 00:39:49,119
another issue is that the act of

1050
00:39:54,630 --> 00:39:52,640
discovery can destroy most if not all of

1051
00:39:57,030 --> 00:39:54,640
the key evidence

1052
00:39:59,349 --> 00:39:57,040
for example if you have to dig to

1053
00:40:01,510 --> 00:39:59,359
uncover a site as you're digging it up

1054
00:40:03,349 --> 00:40:01,520
you're effectively destroying all of the

1055
00:40:04,710 --> 00:40:03,359
evidence of the site's stratigraphic

1056
00:40:06,710 --> 00:40:04,720
positioning

1057
00:40:08,790 --> 00:40:06,720
archaeologists are trained in how to

1058
00:40:10,790 --> 00:40:08,800
conduct this sort of excavation and

1059
00:40:13,270 --> 00:40:10,800
carefully document each stage to

1060
00:40:15,030 --> 00:40:13,280
preserve as much information about the

1061
00:40:16,950 --> 00:40:15,040
original condition of the site as

1062
00:40:19,750 --> 00:40:16,960
possible

1063
00:40:22,150 --> 00:40:19,760
however this also means that knowledge

1064
00:40:24,630 --> 00:40:22,160
of key elements is entirely dependent

1065
00:40:26,870 --> 00:40:24,640
upon the observers who were present

1066
00:40:29,430 --> 00:40:26,880
no matter how careful someone is it

1067
00:40:31,670 --> 00:40:29,440
would be impossible for anyone to record

1068
00:40:34,390 --> 00:40:31,680
absolutely everything about a site as it

1069
00:40:36,870 --> 00:40:34,400
existed in its original condition

1070
00:40:39,190 --> 00:40:36,880
any small detail that is overlooked

1071
00:40:41,109 --> 00:40:39,200
could potentially have huge implications

1072
00:40:42,950 --> 00:40:41,119
for the conclusions that are later drawn

1073
00:40:45,270 --> 00:40:42,960
about a particular site

1074
00:40:48,470 --> 00:40:45,280
but once it's been excavated that

1075
00:40:50,790 --> 00:40:48,480
evidence is destroyed forever

1076
00:40:52,470 --> 00:40:50,800
and this is only further complicated by

1077
00:40:55,510 --> 00:40:52,480
the fact that interpreting an

1078
00:40:58,230 --> 00:40:55,520
archaeological site is never simple

1079
00:41:00,710 --> 00:40:58,240
on any given day you could take any two

1080
00:41:03,030 --> 00:41:00,720
top archaeologists plot them down on the

1081
00:41:05,430 --> 00:41:03,040
same site and ask them their conclusions

1082
00:41:07,750 --> 00:41:05,440
and get two different answers

1083
00:41:09,910 --> 00:41:07,760
coming to a consensus is often difficult

1084
00:41:11,990 --> 00:41:09,920
and made more so by the fact that the

1085
00:41:13,829 --> 00:41:12,000
only data available is that which was

1086
00:41:15,589 --> 00:41:13,839
collected by those who were on the site

1087
00:41:18,069 --> 00:41:15,599
at the time of the dig

1088
00:41:20,790 --> 00:41:18,079
and to further muddy the waters

1089
00:41:22,790 --> 00:41:20,800
there are incentives for people to lie

1090
00:41:24,950 --> 00:41:22,800
we'd like to think that we can always

1091
00:41:27,190 --> 00:41:24,960
depend upon a scientist to be objective

1092
00:41:28,950 --> 00:41:27,200
and truthful in their conclusions but

1093
00:41:30,790 --> 00:41:28,960
the reality is that scientists are

1094
00:41:32,630 --> 00:41:30,800
subject to the same conscious and

1095
00:41:35,349 --> 00:41:32,640
unconscious biases and the same

1096
00:41:37,190 --> 00:41:35,359
temptations as the rest of us

1097
00:41:38,950 --> 00:41:37,200
while there are a few archaeologists who

1098
00:41:41,750 --> 00:41:38,960
manage to make multiple important

1099
00:41:43,589 --> 00:41:41,760
discoveries in their careers the reality

1100
00:41:45,670 --> 00:41:43,599
is that many brilliant and talented

1101
00:41:48,390 --> 00:41:45,680
archaeologists toil for their entire

1102
00:41:49,990 --> 00:41:48,400
careers without ever personally finding

1103
00:41:51,750 --> 00:41:50,000
anything of import

1104
00:41:52,710 --> 00:41:51,760
beyond just earning the respect of their

1105
00:41:54,790 --> 00:41:52,720
peers

1106
00:41:56,950 --> 00:41:54,800
making an important discovery means more

1107
00:41:59,190 --> 00:41:56,960
money for research and excavations

1108
00:42:01,109 --> 00:41:59,200
better positions at better universities

1109
00:42:02,630 --> 00:42:01,119
and even potentially book and media

1110
00:42:05,109 --> 00:42:02,640
opportunities

1111
00:42:07,030 --> 00:42:05,119
it's not hard to understand why someone

1112
00:42:09,510 --> 00:42:07,040
might leave out information that might

1113
00:42:11,270 --> 00:42:09,520
contradict the importance of their find

1114
00:42:12,870 --> 00:42:11,280
or might embellish slightly to make

1115
00:42:14,710 --> 00:42:12,880
something seem more important than it

1116
00:42:16,870 --> 00:42:14,720
was

1117
00:42:18,309 --> 00:42:16,880
and i'd argue that there's the opposite

1118
00:42:21,030 --> 00:42:18,319
pressure as well

1119
00:42:23,349 --> 00:42:21,040
to gloss over or to overlook anomalous

1120
00:42:25,510 --> 00:42:23,359
details that contradict earlier findings

1121
00:42:28,069 --> 00:42:25,520
and conclusions in the field

1122
00:42:30,230 --> 00:42:28,079
as with anything else archaeology has a

1123
00:42:32,470 --> 00:42:30,240
deeply enmeshed established narrative

1124
00:42:34,150 --> 00:42:32,480
regarding the history of humanity

1125
00:42:37,109 --> 00:42:34,160
and those who choose to challenge the

1126
00:42:39,550 --> 00:42:37,119
status quo are often met with hostility

1127
00:42:41,990 --> 00:42:39,560
and derision they can be labeled as

1128
00:42:44,309 --> 00:42:42,000
pseudoscientists if not outright con

1129
00:42:46,390 --> 00:42:44,319
artists and for people who are slapped

1130
00:42:47,829 --> 00:42:46,400
with that label the fallout can be

1131
00:42:49,190 --> 00:42:47,839
personally and professionally

1132
00:42:51,109 --> 00:42:49,200
devastating

1133
00:42:55,349 --> 00:42:51,119
the research money and cushy positions

1134
00:42:59,270 --> 00:42:56,829
which brings us to another

1135
00:43:01,750 --> 00:42:59,280
epistemological challenge that impacts

1136
00:43:03,349 --> 00:43:01,760
not just archaeology but the practice of

1137
00:43:05,589 --> 00:43:03,359
science as a whole

1138
00:43:07,430 --> 00:43:05,599
which is that there are flaws in the

1139
00:43:09,670 --> 00:43:07,440
peer review system that can make it

1140
00:43:12,150 --> 00:43:09,680
difficult for particularly challenging

1141
00:43:14,150 --> 00:43:12,160
or unpopular ideas to get the same

1142
00:43:15,829 --> 00:43:14,160
consideration as ideas that are more

1143
00:43:17,190 --> 00:43:15,839
closely aligned with the established

1144
00:43:19,750 --> 00:43:17,200
narrative

1145
00:43:21,910 --> 00:43:19,760
if you're unfamiliar peer review is the

1146
00:43:23,910 --> 00:43:21,920
system used to assess the quality of a

1147
00:43:25,750 --> 00:43:23,920
manuscript before it's published in a

1148
00:43:27,910 --> 00:43:25,760
scientific journal

1149
00:43:30,069 --> 00:43:27,920
independent researchers in the relevant

1150
00:43:33,030 --> 00:43:30,079
research area assess submitted

1151
00:43:35,750 --> 00:43:33,040
manuscripts for originality validity and

1152
00:43:37,589 --> 00:43:35,760
significance to help editors determine

1153
00:43:39,430 --> 00:43:37,599
whether a manuscript should be published

1154
00:43:41,670 --> 00:43:39,440
in their journal

1155
00:43:43,910 --> 00:43:41,680
basically it's a way for other experts

1156
00:43:46,069 --> 00:43:43,920
in the field to look at how the research

1157
00:43:48,150 --> 00:43:46,079
being presented was conducted and to

1158
00:43:50,470 --> 00:43:48,160
assess the conclusions that were drawn

1159
00:43:51,430 --> 00:43:50,480
and to give an opinion on how legit it

1160
00:43:55,750 --> 00:43:51,440
is

1161
00:43:57,910 --> 00:43:55,760
need to have a group of their peers look

1162
00:43:59,109 --> 00:43:57,920
over their work and say this looks right

1163
00:44:01,190 --> 00:43:59,119
to me

1164
00:44:03,510 --> 00:44:01,200
and peer review isn't just used to

1165
00:44:05,750 --> 00:44:03,520
determine which articles are published

1166
00:44:08,069 --> 00:44:05,760
but to determine who receives scientific

1167
00:44:10,870 --> 00:44:08,079
grants which projects are funded and

1168
00:44:12,710 --> 00:44:10,880
which scientists are hired and promoted

1169
00:44:14,550 --> 00:44:12,720
and that makes sense right

1170
00:44:16,390 --> 00:44:14,560
we need some sort of system of checks

1171
00:44:17,990 --> 00:44:16,400
and balances in science

1172
00:44:19,990 --> 00:44:18,000
we need a way to sort out the

1173
00:44:22,550 --> 00:44:20,000
experiments that were poorly constructed

1174
00:44:25,589 --> 00:44:22,560
and the conclusions that weren't sound

1175
00:44:27,750 --> 00:44:25,599
we need a way of coming to a consensus

1176
00:44:30,230 --> 00:44:27,760
and don't get me wrong for all of its

1177
00:44:32,710 --> 00:44:30,240
flaws the peer review system is the best

1178
00:44:34,950 --> 00:44:32,720
answer we have for that by far

1179
00:44:37,109 --> 00:44:34,960
it's like democracy it's a messy

1180
00:44:38,630 --> 00:44:37,119
imperfect system but we have yet to come

1181
00:44:40,710 --> 00:44:38,640
up with anything better

1182
00:44:42,630 --> 00:44:40,720
so please don't hear what i'm about to

1183
00:44:44,470 --> 00:44:42,640
say as an attack on the peer review

1184
00:44:45,589 --> 00:44:44,480
system or a suggestion that it should be

1185
00:44:47,349 --> 00:44:45,599
abandoned

1186
00:44:50,150 --> 00:44:47,359
but i do think that it's important to

1187
00:44:52,550 --> 00:44:50,160
understand what its weaknesses are and

1188
00:44:55,030 --> 00:44:52,560
how they can become particularly evident

1189
00:44:57,750 --> 00:44:55,040
in the case of scientific findings that

1190
00:44:58,710 --> 00:44:57,760
radically alter our existing beliefs

1191
00:45:00,950 --> 00:44:58,720
so

1192
00:45:03,670 --> 00:45:00,960
what are those limitations

1193
00:45:06,870 --> 00:45:03,680
the first is that reviewers are usually

1194
00:45:09,270 --> 00:45:06,880
untrained unpaid and overworked

1195
00:45:10,630 --> 00:45:09,280
now granted untrained means something

1196
00:45:12,550 --> 00:45:10,640
very different when you're talking about

1197
00:45:13,510 --> 00:45:12,560
a scientist with one or more terminal

1198
00:45:15,109 --> 00:45:13,520
degrees

1199
00:45:17,510 --> 00:45:15,119
the people who are conducting peer

1200
00:45:19,910 --> 00:45:17,520
review are highly trained in both their

1201
00:45:20,870 --> 00:45:19,920
field and in scientific methodologies as

1202
00:45:23,349 --> 00:45:20,880
a whole

1203
00:45:26,550 --> 00:45:23,359
however they aren't generally trained on

1204
00:45:28,550 --> 00:45:26,560
the peer review process itself

1205
00:45:31,190 --> 00:45:28,560
and as we'll see there are certain

1206
00:45:33,270 --> 00:45:31,200
mistakes and biases that can impact what

1207
00:45:35,750 --> 00:45:33,280
studies get published and which ones

1208
00:45:37,349 --> 00:45:35,760
don't which in turn impacts which

1209
00:45:40,470 --> 00:45:37,359
scientific findings are given

1210
00:45:42,550 --> 00:45:40,480
credibility and which ones are dismissed

1211
00:45:44,309 --> 00:45:42,560
so a little training on how to check

1212
00:45:46,870 --> 00:45:44,319
yourself for those biases throughout the

1213
00:45:48,630 --> 00:45:46,880
process seems warranted but it's not

1214
00:45:50,230 --> 00:45:48,640
something that most peer reviewers ever

1215
00:45:53,270 --> 00:45:50,240
receive

1216
00:45:55,589 --> 00:45:53,280
and with 2.5 million peer-reviewed

1217
00:45:57,190 --> 00:45:55,599
articles being published annually

1218
00:45:58,470 --> 00:45:57,200
a number which does not take into

1219
00:45:59,670 --> 00:45:58,480
account all of the papers that are

1220
00:46:01,589 --> 00:45:59,680
rejected

1221
00:46:02,950 --> 00:46:01,599
it's difficult to find enough people to

1222
00:46:04,550 --> 00:46:02,960
do the work

1223
00:46:06,710 --> 00:46:04,560
add in the fact that they are generally

1224
00:46:08,550 --> 00:46:06,720
unpaid for their labor and the result is

1225
00:46:10,470 --> 00:46:08,560
a pool of peer reviewers who are

1226
00:46:12,230 --> 00:46:10,480
well-meaning but almost certainly

1227
00:46:13,910 --> 00:46:12,240
overworked

1228
00:46:16,230 --> 00:46:13,920
the second issue with the peer review

1229
00:46:19,109 --> 00:46:16,240
system is that there's evidence that

1230
00:46:21,990 --> 00:46:19,119
reviewers aren't always consistent

1231
00:46:23,910 --> 00:46:22,000
in one study two researchers selected 12

1232
00:46:26,550 --> 00:46:23,920
articles that were already accepted by

1233
00:46:28,230 --> 00:46:26,560
well-respected scientific journals and

1234
00:46:30,950 --> 00:46:28,240
switched the names of the authors and

1235
00:46:33,109 --> 00:46:30,960
academic institutions to fake ones

1236
00:46:35,109 --> 00:46:33,119
they then resubmitted the exact same

1237
00:46:37,589 --> 00:46:35,119
articles to the same journals that had

1238
00:46:39,349 --> 00:46:37,599
already accepted them in the previous 18

1239
00:46:41,990 --> 00:46:39,359
to 32 months

1240
00:46:43,589 --> 00:46:42,000
surprisingly only three of the papers

1241
00:46:45,430 --> 00:46:43,599
were identified by the editors and

1242
00:46:47,270 --> 00:46:45,440
reviewers of these journals as being an

1243
00:46:49,670 --> 00:46:47,280
article they'd already published

1244
00:46:53,190 --> 00:46:49,680
and of the nine that continued on all

1245
00:46:55,750 --> 00:46:53,200
but one was turned down with 89 of the

1246
00:46:58,069 --> 00:46:55,760
reviewers recommending rejection

1247
00:47:00,069 --> 00:46:58,079
obviously this lack of consistency

1248
00:47:01,670 --> 00:47:00,079
suggests that there are factors beyond

1249
00:47:03,990 --> 00:47:01,680
just the black and white scientific

1250
00:47:06,470 --> 00:47:04,000
merits of an article that contributes to

1251
00:47:07,670 --> 00:47:06,480
whether or not it's actually published

1252
00:47:09,270 --> 00:47:07,680
and finally

1253
00:47:11,270 --> 00:47:09,280
there is evidence that the most

1254
00:47:13,750 --> 00:47:11,280
innovative and impactful scientific

1255
00:47:16,309 --> 00:47:13,760
ideas are more likely to be rejected

1256
00:47:19,109 --> 00:47:16,319
through the process of peer review

1257
00:47:21,349 --> 00:47:19,119
a 2015 study tracked the popularity of

1258
00:47:23,589 --> 00:47:21,359
rejected and accepted manuscripts at

1259
00:47:24,390 --> 00:47:23,599
three top medical journals and found

1260
00:47:25,990 --> 00:47:24,400
that

1261
00:47:28,069 --> 00:47:26,000
while the editors and reviewers

1262
00:47:30,069 --> 00:47:28,079
generally made good decisions regarding

1263
00:47:31,510 --> 00:47:30,079
which manuscripts to publish and which

1264
00:47:33,829 --> 00:47:31,520
to reject

1265
00:47:35,589 --> 00:47:33,839
some of the most highly cited articles

1266
00:47:37,750 --> 00:47:35,599
were the ones that were most likely to

1267
00:47:41,910 --> 00:47:37,760
be rejected

1268
00:47:44,230 --> 00:47:41,920
they started with 1008 manuscripts 808

1269
00:47:45,270 --> 00:47:44,240
of which were eventually published

1270
00:47:48,069 --> 00:47:45,280
however

1271
00:47:51,430 --> 00:47:48,079
among those that were rejected were all

1272
00:47:53,589 --> 00:47:51,440
of the 14 most cited articles

1273
00:47:55,990 --> 00:47:53,599
this suggests that while the peer review

1274
00:47:57,829 --> 00:47:56,000
system is great for raising the overall

1275
00:48:00,309 --> 00:47:57,839
average quality of articles that are

1276
00:48:02,150 --> 00:48:00,319
published it isn't very good at

1277
00:48:04,790 --> 00:48:02,160
recognizing and promoting the most

1278
00:48:07,430 --> 00:48:04,800
important and impactful research

1279
00:48:09,589 --> 00:48:07,440
which makes sense if you want to smooth

1280
00:48:11,990 --> 00:48:09,599
out the mean of any data you first need

1281
00:48:14,309 --> 00:48:12,000
to eliminate any outliers

1282
00:48:16,470 --> 00:48:14,319
but sometimes the outlier is the data

1283
00:48:18,950 --> 00:48:16,480
point that changes everything

1284
00:48:21,430 --> 00:48:18,960
what then

1285
00:48:23,829 --> 00:48:21,440
so the takeaway here is this the peer

1286
00:48:26,069 --> 00:48:23,839
review system is a necessary and well

1287
00:48:28,470 --> 00:48:26,079
proven process for maintaining an

1288
00:48:30,470 --> 00:48:28,480
overall level of quality and scientific

1289
00:48:33,270 --> 00:48:30,480
rigor with regard to the scientific

1290
00:48:35,430 --> 00:48:33,280
articles that are published

1291
00:48:37,750 --> 00:48:35,440
however the system is not without its

1292
00:48:40,790 --> 00:48:37,760
flaws and has a general bias toward the

1293
00:48:43,829 --> 00:48:40,800
status quo and against more innovative

1294
00:48:44,710 --> 00:48:43,839
or radical ideas

1295
00:48:47,109 --> 00:48:44,720
so

1296
00:48:49,589 --> 00:48:47,119
putting it all together what does all of

1297
00:48:51,430 --> 00:48:49,599
this mean for us

1298
00:48:53,589 --> 00:48:51,440
what it doesn't mean and i want to be

1299
00:48:55,670 --> 00:48:53,599
very clear about this is that we should

1300
00:48:57,670 --> 00:48:55,680
just throw everything out the window or

1301
00:48:59,750 --> 00:48:57,680
assume that we are as good as or better

1302
00:49:00,950 --> 00:48:59,760
than archaeologists at interpreting data

1303
00:49:03,349 --> 00:49:00,960
in their field

1304
00:49:05,510 --> 00:49:03,359
we absolutely are not

1305
00:49:06,549 --> 00:49:05,520
right now we're feeling smug and full of

1306
00:49:08,549 --> 00:49:06,559
facts

1307
00:49:10,870 --> 00:49:08,559
we know about the challenges of dating

1308
00:49:12,790 --> 00:49:10,880
archaeological sites we know that most

1309
00:49:15,270 --> 00:49:12,800
archaeologists only ever get to assess

1310
00:49:17,270 --> 00:49:15,280
second or third hand data we understand

1311
00:49:20,069 --> 00:49:17,280
the biases inherent to the peer review

1312
00:49:21,990 --> 00:49:20,079
process we're feeling very smart and who

1313
00:49:23,910 --> 00:49:22,000
doesn't love feeling smart

1314
00:49:25,589 --> 00:49:23,920
but everything that we've talked about

1315
00:49:28,710 --> 00:49:25,599
in the last few minutes wouldn't even

1316
00:49:31,030 --> 00:49:28,720
fill one chapter of a 101 textbook

1317
00:49:33,190 --> 00:49:31,040
it's not even a drop in a bucket it's a

1318
00:49:34,710 --> 00:49:33,200
drop in an ocean compared to the

1319
00:49:36,470 --> 00:49:34,720
knowledge of people who have spent

1320
00:49:39,270 --> 00:49:36,480
decades of their lives

1321
00:49:41,270 --> 00:49:39,280
dedicated to studying these things

1322
00:49:43,190 --> 00:49:41,280
when you find ourselves in this place

1323
00:49:45,589 --> 00:49:43,200
the dunning-kruger effect is a good

1324
00:49:47,750 --> 00:49:45,599
touchstone to keep us grounded if you're

1325
00:49:50,069 --> 00:49:47,760
unfamiliar the dunning-kruger effect is

1326
00:49:52,630 --> 00:49:50,079
an extremely common form of cognitive

1327
00:49:54,150 --> 00:49:52,640
bias where people who have very limited

1328
00:49:56,309 --> 00:49:54,160
knowledge of something greatly

1329
00:49:57,349 --> 00:49:56,319
overestimate how much they know about a

1330
00:49:59,349 --> 00:49:57,359
thing

1331
00:50:00,790 --> 00:49:59,359
it's basically a case of not knowing

1332
00:50:02,309 --> 00:50:00,800
what you don't know

1333
00:50:03,990 --> 00:50:02,319
if you only know a little bit about

1334
00:50:05,990 --> 00:50:04,000
something you can easily make the

1335
00:50:08,230 --> 00:50:06,000
mistake of assuming that what you know

1336
00:50:10,470 --> 00:50:08,240
is basically all there is to know

1337
00:50:12,390 --> 00:50:10,480
and interestingly once people start to

1338
00:50:14,150 --> 00:50:12,400
learn more about a subject and become

1339
00:50:16,870 --> 00:50:14,160
more aware of its true scope and

1340
00:50:18,950 --> 00:50:16,880
complexity they very quickly go from

1341
00:50:22,230 --> 00:50:18,960
overestimating their knowledge to

1342
00:50:24,390 --> 00:50:22,240
realizing that they know next to nothing

1343
00:50:26,069 --> 00:50:24,400
so basically if you haven't studied

1344
00:50:27,990 --> 00:50:26,079
something deeply enough to have been

1345
00:50:30,069 --> 00:50:28,000
truly humbled by it

1346
00:50:32,950 --> 00:50:30,079
you probably know much much less about

1347
00:50:35,030 --> 00:50:32,960
that thing than you'd like to think

1348
00:50:36,710 --> 00:50:35,040
i also want to be clear that although i

1349
00:50:38,230 --> 00:50:36,720
do think that there is more than enough

1350
00:50:40,069 --> 00:50:38,240
evidence for us to question the

1351
00:50:42,309 --> 00:50:40,079
established narrative about the age and

1352
00:50:44,630 --> 00:50:42,319
origins of human civilization

1353
00:50:46,630 --> 00:50:44,640
and that the mechanisms and institutions

1354
00:50:49,589 --> 00:50:46,640
of academia have been suppressing this

1355
00:50:51,430 --> 00:50:49,599
knowledge i absolutely do not believe

1356
00:50:54,630 --> 00:50:51,440
that there is a conspiracy within

1357
00:50:56,710 --> 00:50:54,640
academia to cover any of this up because

1358
00:50:58,150 --> 00:50:56,720
i don't think that there needs to be

1359
00:51:00,950 --> 00:50:58,160
when i look at all of these things

1360
00:51:04,069 --> 00:51:00,960
together i don't see a plot i don't see

1361
00:51:06,829 --> 00:51:04,079
sinister machinations what i see is our

1362
00:51:09,910 --> 00:51:06,839
humanity in all its nobility and

1363
00:51:11,670 --> 00:51:09,920
absurdity we want to belong so we shift

1364
00:51:12,710 --> 00:51:11,680
and mold our beliefs to align with the

1365
00:51:14,630 --> 00:51:12,720
whole

1366
00:51:16,790 --> 00:51:14,640
our need to know who we are is so

1367
00:51:19,349 --> 00:51:16,800
profound that we tell ourselves that we

1368
00:51:20,549 --> 00:51:19,359
already do just to ease the existential

1369
00:51:22,549 --> 00:51:20,559
friction

1370
00:51:24,390 --> 00:51:22,559
we mistake the limits of our knowledge

1371
00:51:27,670 --> 00:51:24,400
for the limits of what is

1372
00:51:30,069 --> 00:51:27,680
we strive we falter we're wrong

1373
00:51:32,390 --> 00:51:30,079
we rise and we try again it's just who

1374
00:51:34,710 --> 00:51:32,400
we are

1375
00:51:36,230 --> 00:51:34,720
and finally i want to take a minute to

1376
00:51:37,990 --> 00:51:36,240
talk about a word that gets thrown

1377
00:51:39,750 --> 00:51:38,000
around a lot when we're talking about

1378
00:51:41,430 --> 00:51:39,760
scientific ideas that threaten the

1379
00:51:44,150 --> 00:51:41,440
established narrative

1380
00:51:45,910 --> 00:51:44,160
and that word is pseudoscience

1381
00:51:47,990 --> 00:51:45,920
and for any scientist who hopes to

1382
00:51:50,309 --> 00:51:48,000
maintain the credibility necessary to

1383
00:51:52,549 --> 00:51:50,319
have a career much less get money to

1384
00:51:53,990 --> 00:51:52,559
fund their research it's the ultimate

1385
00:51:56,390 --> 00:51:54,000
kiss of death

1386
00:51:58,710 --> 00:51:56,400
but what is pseudoscience

1387
00:52:00,950 --> 00:51:58,720
pseudoscience is a collection of beliefs

1388
00:52:02,710 --> 00:52:00,960
or practices regarded as being based on

1389
00:52:05,270 --> 00:52:02,720
the scientific method

1390
00:52:07,270 --> 00:52:05,280
so if a person is using the scientific

1391
00:52:08,470 --> 00:52:07,280
method to define a question make

1392
00:52:10,470 --> 00:52:08,480
predictions

1393
00:52:11,750 --> 00:52:10,480
gather and analyze data and then draw

1394
00:52:13,190 --> 00:52:11,760
conclusions

1395
00:52:15,510 --> 00:52:13,200
that's science

1396
00:52:18,870 --> 00:52:15,520
if a person is not using the scientific

1397
00:52:20,230 --> 00:52:18,880
method that's not science and if someone

1398
00:52:22,470 --> 00:52:20,240
is doing research and drawing

1399
00:52:24,630 --> 00:52:22,480
conclusions in a way that they think is

1400
00:52:26,390 --> 00:52:24,640
in alignment with the scientific method

1401
00:52:28,870 --> 00:52:26,400
but it actually isn't

1402
00:52:30,710 --> 00:52:28,880
that's pseudoscience

1403
00:52:32,950 --> 00:52:30,720
pretty straightforward right

1404
00:52:33,829 --> 00:52:32,960
and i come back to this idea again and

1405
00:52:36,150 --> 00:52:33,839
again

1406
00:52:38,470 --> 00:52:36,160
because it's in this distinction that we

1407
00:52:41,030 --> 00:52:38,480
can begin to get a solid foothold to

1408
00:52:42,710 --> 00:52:41,040
help us evaluate whether or not ideas

1409
00:52:45,670 --> 00:52:42,720
that have been relegated to the realm of

1410
00:52:47,910 --> 00:52:45,680
pseudoscience have actual merit and best

1411
00:52:50,390 --> 00:52:47,920
of all we don't need to be experts in

1412
00:52:52,470 --> 00:52:50,400
anything to do so

1413
00:52:55,109 --> 00:52:52,480
it's as simple as this

1414
00:52:58,069 --> 00:52:55,119
is this idea being called pseudoscience

1415
00:53:01,030 --> 00:52:58,079
because the approach is unscientific

1416
00:53:03,190 --> 00:53:01,040
or because the conclusions don't conform

1417
00:53:05,750 --> 00:53:03,200
to the established narrative

1418
00:53:07,510 --> 00:53:05,760
if it's unscientific that should be easy

1419
00:53:09,670 --> 00:53:07,520
to demonstrate because either the

1420
00:53:11,430 --> 00:53:09,680
scientific method wasn't used or it

1421
00:53:13,670 --> 00:53:11,440
wasn't used correctly

1422
00:53:15,510 --> 00:53:13,680
maybe a variable wasn't accounted for

1423
00:53:17,510 --> 00:53:15,520
maybe there was a flaw in the way that

1424
00:53:20,230 --> 00:53:17,520
the data was collected there are lots of

1425
00:53:22,390 --> 00:53:20,240
possibilities and any true expert in a

1426
00:53:24,630 --> 00:53:22,400
field that is leveling an accusation of

1427
00:53:26,230 --> 00:53:24,640
pseudoscience against a colleague should

1428
00:53:28,790 --> 00:53:26,240
be able to clearly articulate their

1429
00:53:30,790 --> 00:53:28,800
basis for saying so

1430
00:53:32,309 --> 00:53:30,800
but what's been kind of astonishing to

1431
00:53:35,589 --> 00:53:32,319
me as i've pursued this line of

1432
00:53:37,510 --> 00:53:35,599
questioning is how often accusations of

1433
00:53:40,230 --> 00:53:37,520
pseudoscience mention none of those

1434
00:53:42,150 --> 00:53:40,240
things and focus instead on the fact

1435
00:53:44,790 --> 00:53:42,160
that the conclusions being drawn by this

1436
00:53:47,030 --> 00:53:44,800
person are impossible

1437
00:53:49,270 --> 00:53:47,040
but how many impossible things has

1438
00:53:51,430 --> 00:53:49,280
science proven to be possible

1439
00:53:53,510 --> 00:53:51,440
impossible is a meaningless term for a

1440
00:53:55,829 --> 00:53:53,520
species as young as our own

1441
00:53:57,430 --> 00:53:55,839
what could we possibly know about what's

1442
00:54:02,870 --> 00:53:57,440
impossible

1443
00:54:05,109 --> 00:54:02,880
doesn't conform to the conclusions drawn

1444
00:54:07,030 --> 00:54:05,119
based on the existing data set

1445
00:54:09,430 --> 00:54:07,040
that doesn't mean it's wrong

1446
00:54:11,750 --> 00:54:09,440
it just means that it doesn't fit

1447
00:54:14,069 --> 00:54:11,760
and in science we don't shape our data

1448
00:54:16,950 --> 00:54:14,079
to conform to the conclusions we shape

1449
00:54:19,349 --> 00:54:16,960
our conclusions based on the data

1450
00:54:21,670 --> 00:54:19,359
the fact that a data point doesn't fit

1451
00:54:23,430 --> 00:54:21,680
isn't grounds to throw it out it's a

1452
00:54:25,270 --> 00:54:23,440
hint that there may be a piece of the

1453
00:54:27,190 --> 00:54:25,280
puzzle that we're missing

1454
00:54:29,510 --> 00:54:27,200
and so while we may not be

1455
00:54:31,670 --> 00:54:29,520
archaeologists or scientists

1456
00:54:33,910 --> 00:54:31,680
i would argue that we are at least able

1457
00:54:36,309 --> 00:54:33,920
to determine whether a set of ideas that

1458
00:54:39,510 --> 00:54:36,319
is labeled as pseudoscience has been

1459
00:54:41,670 --> 00:54:39,520
labeled so fairly that doesn't mean then

1460
00:54:43,670 --> 00:54:41,680
that it's necessarily true

1461
00:54:45,430 --> 00:54:43,680
only that we should wait to reject it

1462
00:54:47,270 --> 00:54:45,440
until we're able to do so on its

1463
00:54:49,589 --> 00:54:47,280
scientific merits

1464
00:54:51,190 --> 00:54:49,599
and that at least gives us a place to

1465
00:54:54,150 --> 00:54:51,200
start

1466
00:54:57,109 --> 00:54:54,160
so as we conclude this introduction that

1467
00:54:59,190 --> 00:54:57,119
became an entire episode i feel like we

1468
00:55:01,910 --> 00:54:59,200
have a solid foundation to go forward

1469
00:55:03,589 --> 00:55:01,920
from here and begin to explore some of

1470
00:55:05,430 --> 00:55:03,599
the mysteries surrounding the dawn of

1471
00:55:07,270 --> 00:55:05,440
human civilization

1472
00:55:09,829 --> 00:55:07,280
we recognize the necessity of

1473
00:55:12,470 --> 00:55:09,839
reevaluating the story of humanity

1474
00:55:14,470 --> 00:55:12,480
through the lens of the ufo phenomenon

1475
00:55:16,630 --> 00:55:14,480
we understand some of the challenges

1476
00:55:18,950 --> 00:55:16,640
that exist in creating a reliable and

1477
00:55:20,870 --> 00:55:18,960
consistent narrative around the events

1478
00:55:22,630 --> 00:55:20,880
of the distant past

1479
00:55:24,710 --> 00:55:22,640
we know that although the peer review

1480
00:55:26,870 --> 00:55:24,720
system helps us to ensure a high level

1481
00:55:29,270 --> 00:55:26,880
of scientific rigor and excellence is

1482
00:55:31,430 --> 00:55:29,280
maintained in the work that is published

1483
00:55:33,030 --> 00:55:31,440
it also has a tendency to reject the

1484
00:55:34,710 --> 00:55:33,040
work that is most important and

1485
00:55:37,270 --> 00:55:34,720
impactful

1486
00:55:39,510 --> 00:55:37,280
and finally we have a simple framework

1487
00:55:41,510 --> 00:55:39,520
to help us assess whether radical and

1488
00:55:44,150 --> 00:55:41,520
innovative ideas are being dismissed as

1489
00:55:46,950 --> 00:55:44,160
pseudoscience based on their merits or

1490
00:55:48,470 --> 00:55:46,960
if other biases may be at work

1491
00:55:49,270 --> 00:55:48,480
and that's where we'll pick it up next

1492
00:55:54,390 --> 00:55:49,280
time

1493
00:55:56,950 --> 00:55:54,400
looking for answers and begin to explore

1494
00:55:59,349 --> 00:55:56,960
some of the most astonishing evidence

1495
00:56:02,230 --> 00:55:59,359
that suggests that the history of human

1496
00:56:04,470 --> 00:56:02,240
civilization on this planet maybe far

1497
00:56:05,589 --> 00:56:04,480
older and more dazzling than we ever

1498
00:56:14,210 --> 00:56:05,599
imagined